We show design, modeling, fabrication, and characterization results for high-transmission broad-angle frequency
selective surfaces (FSSs) in the mid-infrared. The single metal layer of a FSS allows its incorporation directly into focal
plane array (FPA) designs, thus allowing direct integration of the filtering and polarizing properties of the FSS into
sensors from single photodetectors to FPAs. In thin film filter designs the number of layers and film thicknesses may
vary pixel-to-pixel, making fabrication difficult. In contrast, changes in spectral passband or polarization state are easily
accomplished with changes to the FSS pattern.
We have designed, fabricated, and tested FSSs of patterned gold on a GaAs substrate. Designs include single metal
layers and a metal plus a dielectric layer. Design and modeling were performed using rigorous coupled wave analysis
(RCWA). Further simulations were performed using a 3D Helmholtz code. All simulations account for the loss and
dispersion of the metal at these wavelengths. FSSs with narrowband and broadband capabilities and for polarizing and
non-polarizing applications were designed.
We will show measured results of both reflection and transmission over a broad spectral (covering all of the mid and
thermal infrared) and angular (near normal to near grazing) range. These measurements compare favorably with the
modeled results.
We review what we have learned in the last few years from modeling nanosecond fiber amplifiers. We have developed a number of models that treat bent fiber mode profiles and bend loss, plus gain models and models of nonlinear processes such as self phase modulation, self focusing, SRS, SBS, and four wave mixing. The models have been validated by detailed comparisons with laboratory measurements.
Sandia National Laboratories' program in high-power fiber lasers has emphasized development of enabling technologies
for power scaling and gaining a quantitative understanding of fundamental limits, particularly for high-peak-power,
pulsed fiber sources. This paper provides an overview of the program, which includes: (1) power scaling of diffraction-limited
fiber amplifiers by bend-loss-induced mode filtering to produce >1 MW peak power and >1 mJ pulse energy
with a practical system architecture; (2) demonstration of a widely tunable repetition rate (7.1-27 kHz) while
maintaining constant pulse duration and pulse energy, linear output polarization, diffraction-limited beam quality, and
<1% pulse-energy fluctuations; (3) development of microlaser seed sources optimized for efficient energy extraction; (4)
high-fidelity, three-dimensional, time-dependent modeling of fiber amplifiers, including nonlinear processes; (5)
quantitative assessment of the limiting effects of four-wave mixing and self-focusing on fiber-amplifier performance; (6)
nonlinear frequency conversion to efficiently generate mid-infrared through deep-ultraviolet radiation; (7) direct diode-bar
pumping of a fiber laser using embedded-mirror side pumping, which provides 2.0x higher efficiency and much
more compact packaging than traditional approaches employing formatted, fiber-coupled diode bars; and (8)
fundamental studies of materials properties, including optical damage, photodarkening, and gamma-radiation-induced
darkening.
We have numerically compared the performance of various designs for the core refractive-index (RI) and
rare-earth-dopant distributions of large-mode-area fibers for use in bend-loss-filtered, high-power
amplifiers. We first established quantitative targets for the key parameters that determine fiber-amplifier
performance, including effective LP01 modal area (Aeff, both straight and coiled), bend sensitivity (for
handling and packaging), high-order mode discrimination, mode-field displacement upon coiling, and
index contrast (manufacturability). We compared design families based on various power-law and hybrid
profiles for the RI and evaluated confined rare-earth doping for hybrid profiles. Step-index fibers with
straight-fiber Aeff values > 1000 &mgr;m2 exhibit large decreases in Aeff and transverse mode-field displacements
upon coiling, in agreement with recent calculations of Hadley et al. [Proc. of SPIE, Vol. 6102, 61021S
(2006)] and Fini [Opt. Exp. 14, 69 (2006)]. Triangular-profile fibers substantially mitigate these effects,
but suffer from excessive bend sensitivity at Aeff values of interest. Square-law (parabolic) profile fibers are
free of modal distortion but are hampered by high bend sensitivity (although to a lesser degree than
triangular profiles) and exhibit the largest mode displacements. We find that hybrid (combined power-law)
profiles provide some decoupling of these tradeoffs and allow all design goals to be achieved
simultaneously. We present optimized fiber designs based on this analysis.
The design and optimization of high-power fiber amplifiers requires a simulation tool capable of including a wide range of effects simultaneously, including mode distortion
and loss due to bending, spatially-dependent saturable gain, guiding from arbitrary index of refraction profiles and self-focusing. In addition, the nonlinear effects are power
dependent and thus will distort the pulse shape. We have constructed a numerical model to address these issues and serve as a platform for data analysis and system optimization.
We have numerically investigated the behavior of the LP01 fundamental mode of a step-index, multimode
(MM) fiber as the optical power approaches the self-focusing limit (Pcrit). The analysis includes the effects
of optical gain and fiber bending and are thus applicable to coiled fiber amplifiers. We find that at powers
below Pcrit, there exist stably propagating power-dependent modifications of the LP01 mode, in contrast to
some previous solutions that exhibited large-amplitude oscillations in beam waist along the fiber. For the
first time, to our knowledge, we show that in a MM fiber amplifier seeded with the low-power LP01
eigenmode, the transverse spatial profile will adiabatically evolve through power-dependent stationary
solutions as the beam is amplified toward Pcrit. In addition, for a given value of the nonlinear index, Pcrit is
found to be nearly the same in the bulk material and in a step-index fiber. These conclusions hold for both
straight and bent fibers, although the quantitative details are somewhat different.
Recently the use of "vortex" beams of high azimuthal mode number has been proposed as a way of increasing the maximum peak power through-put of optical fibers beyond the few MW allowed for Gaussian beams by self-focusing. We report a numerical investigation of these and other schemes using a beam propagation approach that includes
a Kerr-type nonlinearity.
The design and optimization of high-power fiber lasers and amplifiers requires a detailed understanding of several important physical processes, both linear and nonlinear. The influence of bending on the overlap of the propagating mode as well as its resistance to deleterious nonlinear effects such as self-focusing must be accurately predicted. To this end we have developed a number of models, both analytic and numerical, that allow us to treat these effects in detail.
We report results from Yb-doped fiber amplifiers seeded with two microchip lasers having 0.38-ns and 2.3-ns pulse durations. The shorter duration seed resulted in output pulses with a peak power of >1.2 MW and pulse energy of 0.67 mJ. Peak power was limited by nonlinear processes that caused breakup and broadening of the pulse envelope as the pump power increased. The 2.3-ns duration seed laser resulted in output pulses with a peak power of >300 kW and pulse energy of >1.1 mJ. Pulse energies were limited by the onset of stimulated Brillouin scattering and ultimately by internal optical damage (fluences in excess of 400 J/cm2 were generated). In both experiments, nearly diffraction-limited beam profiles were obtained, with M2 values of <1.2. Preliminary results of a pulse-amplification model are in excellent agreement with the experimental results of the amplifiers operating in the low-to-moderate gain-depletion regime.
The large refractive index difference between silicon nitride and silicon dioxide allows silicon nitride/dioxide waveguides to have a small mode size and low radiation bending loss. Low radiation bending loss enables high quality (Q) factor microring resonators. In this paper, we will present a record high quality factor microring resonator using silicon nitride and silicon dioxide on a silicon wafer. The microring resonator was fabricated using a deep UV photolithography and etching process. The microring resonator was critically coupled to a straight waveguide. An intrinsic quality factor of 240,000 has been measured. We will also present our result of using on-chip high-Q microring resonators for liquid phase chemical sensing application.
The large refractive index contrast between silicon nitride and silicon dioxide allows silicon nitride/dioxide planar waveguides to have a small mode size and low radiation bending loss compared with doped silicon dioxide waveguides. Small waveguide bend with low radiation loss can help make small integrated planar lightwave circuits (PLCs), and also high-Q waveguide ring resonators. This presentation will talk about the design, fabrication and characterization of low loss silicon nitride/dioxide planar waveguide devices including waveguide bend, waveguide cross, and leaky mode waveguide polarizer. The key contribution of this work is the use of the lateral mode interference (LMI) 3dB splitter to accurately measure the loss of the planar lightwave circuit devices. We will also talk about the waveguide ring resonators with silicon nitride/dioxide materials. The application for photonic biochemical sensors will also be discussed.
Resonant subwavelength gratings (RSGs) may be used as narrow-band wavelength and angular reflectors. Rigorous coupled wave analysis (RCWA) predicts 100% reflectivity at the resonant frequency of an incident plane wave from an RSG of infinite extent. For devices of finite extent or for devices illuminated with a finite beam, the peak reflectivity drops, coupled with a broadening of the peak. More complex numerical methods are required to model these finite effects. We have modeled finite devices and finite beams with a two-dimensional finite difference Helmholtz equation. The effect of finite grating aperture and finite beam size are investigated. Specific cases considered include Gaussian beam illumination of an infinite grating, Gaussian illumination of a finite grating, and plane wave illumination of an apertured grating. For a wide grating with a finite Gaussian beam, it is found that the reflectivity is an exponential function of the grating width. Likewise, for an apertured grating the reflectivity shows an exponential decay with narrowing aperture size. Results are compared to other methods, including plane wave decomposition of Gaussian beams using RCWA for the case of a finite input beam, and a semi-analytical techniques for the case of the apertured grating.
Several thousand glass optical fibers fused together is routinely used as fiber image guides for medical and other image remoting applications. Fiber image guides also offer possibility for flexible optical interconnect links with potentially thousands of bi-directional parallel channels with data rates as high as 10 Gbps per channel, leading to more than Tera bits per second aggregate data transfer rates. A fair number of fiber image guide based link demonstrations using vertical cavity surface emitting lasers have been reported. However, little is known about designable parameters and optimization paradigms for applications to massively parallel optical interconnects. This paper discusses critical optical parameters that characterize a massively parallel link. Experimental characterizations were carried out to explore some of the fundamental interactions between single-mode 850 nm VCSELs and fiber image guides having different numerical apertures, 0.25, 0.55 and 1.00. Preliminary optical simulation results are given. Finally, potential directions for further experimental and analytical explorations, and for applicability into designable link systems are suggested.
A numerical model is presented for computing the out-of- plane losses of a general class of row-defect waveguides formed by the superposition of a 2D photonic crystal onto a slab confinement structure. The usefulness of this model is demonstrated here by calculating the propagation loss of a single-row-defect waveguide composed of hexagonal air holes etched into two different slab structures. The results are interpreted in terms of a simple coupled-mode-theory picture in which loss is due to coupling by the waveguide corrugation between the fundamental and certain radiative slab modes. These calculations show that low-loss photonic crystal waveguides should be possible by carefully engineering the radiation modes of the slab waveguide.
We present a comprehensive numerical model for vertical-cavity surface-emitting lasers that includes all major processes effecting cw operation of axisymmetric devices. In particular, our model includes a description of the 2D transport of electrons and holes through the cladding layers to the quantum well(s), diffusion and recombination processes of these carriers within the wells, the 2D transport of heat throughout the device, and a multilateral-mode effective index optical model. The optical gain acquired by photons traversing the quantum wells is computed including the effects of strained band structure and quantum confinement. We employ our model to predict the behavior of higher-order lateral modes in proton-implanted devices, and to provide an understanding of index-guiding in devices fabricated using selective oxidation.
Monolithic integration of a rare-earth-ion-based active waveguide on the same wafer as its diode pump laser would permit compact packaging of the technology demonstrated in fiber lasers and amplifiers. This new monolithic technology would offer the potential for developing compact infrared and visible (up- conversion) lasers, amplifiers, and other photonic integrated circuit components. One approach that we are investigating for such monolithic integration uses a high concentration of one or more rare-earth ions incorporated into polysiloxane spin-on glasses that are solvent-cast onto III-V semiconductor wafers. This `fiber on chip' technology substitutes a relatively high- ion-concentration, short-length metal-ion spin-on glass (MISOG) waveguide for the low-ion-concentration, long-length fiber. Progress to date on developing MISOG waveguide materials and technology is discussed.
Compact, low-cost photonic integrated circuits (PICs) have long been a desire of systems engineers. Unfortunately, the majority of PICs in use today use regrown buried heterostructure waveguides to achieve low crosstalk at reasonable packing density. These regrown structures are very expensive and limit PIC applications to high performance niches. The alternative low- cost approach is to use etched-rib, or strip-loaded, waveguides. Strip-loaded waveguides are simple to manufacture but may have guided slab-modes carrying unwanted light between devices within the PIC. These slab modes can result in very high crosstalk or low device density. This paper addresses techniques for control of stray light in strip-loaded PICs. Methods include mesa isolation of waveguides and ion implantation outside the waveguide rib. In addition, some devices such as Mach-Zehnder interferometers and waveguide power combiners generate radiation and slab modes as a fundamental means of operation. Improved designs for both of these structures with proper removal of both radiated and slab-mode light and high contrast-ration operation will be covered.
Vertical-cavity surface-emitting lasers (VCSELs) are of increasing interest to the photonics community because of their surface-emitting structure, simple fabrication and packaging, wafer-level testability, and potential for low cost manufacture. Scaling VCSELs to higher power outputs requires increasing the device area, which leads to transverse mode control difficulties if devices become larger than about 5 microns. One approach to increasing the device size while maintaining a well controlled transverse mode profile is formation of coupled or phase-locked 2D arrays of VCSELs that are individually single-transverse mode. Such arrays have unique optical properties, not all of which are desirable. This paper covers some of the basic principles of these devices and reviews recent work on device designs, fabrication and operation. A technique for improving the far- field properties of the arrays is demonstrated and performance limitations are discussed.
A new type of diode laser array (denoted 'leaky-mode' or 'antiguided') has recently been reported. Despite their success, these devices are difficult to fabricate since they require a deep wet-chemical etch which must be accurately controlled. The authors report a new strained GaInAs quantum well device structure which is produced by etching a thin (0.12 micrometers ), transparent GaAs waveguide layer. These devices have demonstrated fundamental mode operation up to 2A (172 mW/facet at 1A) at 1% duty cycle pulsed condition and 700 mA (62.5 mW/facet) for cw operation.
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