Highly efficient and compact acousto-optic modulator of a fibre Bragg grating is reported for the first time. The device is composed of millimetre scaled components and a 1 cm grating inscribed in a four air holes birefringent suspended core fibre. The reflection of the orthogonal polarization modes is tuned by a sinusoidal electrical signal at the resonance frequency of 469 kHz. A significant modulation depth of 45% is achieved at a maximum drive voltage of 10 V. The demonstrated 4 cm long all-fibre modulator is 60% shorter compared to previous similar setups, indicating new possibilities for stable and fast switching of fibre-integrated photonic devices.
Fiber lasers are a great source for tunable lasers due to the wide and relatively flat gain spectra of rare earth transitions in a glassy host (as compared to crystals). Thulium (Tm)-doped fibers, in particular, offer an extremely wide tunability of up to 330 nm in the 2μm wavelength region in a dual gain module configuration1. More recently, new concepts have emerged, which allow the synchronized emission of two or even more wavelengths2. These sources are particularly useful for nonlinear frequency conversion via four-wave mixing (FWM) or difference frequency generation (DFG). We will present a very versatile fiber-integrated approach based on Fiber-Bragg-Grating (FBG) arrays implemented in a theta-shaped cavity. The Tm-doped fiber source emits typical average powers of 0.5W and is tunable from 1931nm to 2040nm. The emission linewidth follows the spectral characteristic of the FBG and is typically 30GHz in our case. This concept allows a constant wavelength-independent repetition rate as well as a synchronous emission of two or even three independently tunable wavelengths. The tuning is performed purely electronically by optical gating, and in addition the pulse duration can be tuned between 4ns and 25ns. The switching speed is very fast and was measured to be less than 10μs. These experiments will be contrasted with a different approach based on a VLMA fiber associated to a set of two volume Bragg gratings (VBG), one of them being angle-tunable. This concept allows pulsed (Q-switched) as well as CW operation and features a continuous and wider tunability of up to 144nm especially and also the dual wavelength mode. The output power was > 4.5W in CW mode and pulse peak power of 12kW have been obtained in the Q-switched mode with pulse durations of 25ns.
The target of the present research is the design, implementation and characterization of a portable device based on an all-optical technology capable to perform simultaneously esophageal manometry, pH-metry and bilimetry by means of a single or combined catheter (OPTIMO project). It will provide physicians a compact and reliable tool to perform exhaustive diagnosis in gastroesophageal reflux pathologies. It would be definitely an innovative product in the gastroesophageal diagnostic scenario with high potential for worldwide market penetration and application developments. In particular, pressure measurement along the esophagus is performed with an array of optical fiber gratings, which ensures the monitoring along a length of about 30 cm with high spatial resolution. The sensors for the measurement of pH and bile are based on the change in absorption caused by the parameter under investigation. In the case of pH, an acid-base indicator that changes its absorption as a function of pH is immobilized on controlled pore glasses suitable coupled to plastic optical fibers. As for bile detection, the measurement is based on the direct absorption of bilirubin, the main biliary pigment, and a bundle of plastic optical fibers carries the signal. With a planned clinical assessment of the realized device, the achievement of this main objective implies the accomplishment of the following sub-tasks: i) development of optical fiber sensor for the measurement of pH; ii) development of the optical fiber sensor for bile detection; iii) development of the optical fiber manometer; iv) integration of the optical fiber sensors within a single catheter; v) realization of the portable interrogation unit for all the three parameters; vi) clinical assessment of the final device on both volunteers and patients.
Sensing at small dimensions in biological and medical environments requires miniaturized sensors with high sensitivity and measurement resolution. In this work a small optical fiber probe was developed to apply the Vernier effect, allowing for enhanced temperature sensing. Such effect is an effective way of magnifying the sensitivity of a sensor or measurement system in order to reach higher resolutions. The device is a multimode silica Fabry-Perot interferometer structured at the edge of a tapered multimode fiber by focused ion beam milling. The Vernier effect is generated from the interference between different modes in the Fabry-Perot interferometer. The sensor was characterized in temperature, achieving a sensitivity of -654 pm/°C in a temperature range from 30°C to 120°C. The Vernier effect provided a temperature sensitivity over 60-fold higher than the sensitivity of a normal silica Fabry-Perot interferometer without the effect. The temperature resolution obtained was 0.14°C, however this value was limited by the resolution of the OSA and can be improved further to less than 0.015°C.
We present separation of fibre Bragg grating wavelength reflections in a multicore fibre with an even peak wavelength distance between reflections in the multiple cores of a single cross-section plane. The inscription is achieved simultaneously in all cores by applying a bend in the fibre, and thus inducing a different variation of the effective refractive index in each core. Such method for wavelength multiplexing would enable the interrogation of multiple sensors signals delivered by a single channel, e.g., without the need of a fanout device or a multichannel spectrometer.
Based on favorable properties with respect to beam quality, efficiency and applicability, fiber-integrated lasers replace costly bulk lasers in various application fields, such as in academia, industry, medical technology and life sciences. Additionally, rare-earth doped fibers exhibit broad gain regions, providing huge potential to develop broadly tunable fiber lasers for spectroscopy. Recently a fiber-integrated tuning concept based on an FBG array as discrete spectral filter was demonstrated, exhibiting a unique flexibility to tailor spectral and temporal emission properties. In this work, we present the prospects of this concept to address Differential Absorption LIDAR (DIAL) for environmental sensing. With tunable multi-wavelength operation for enhanced measurement speeds, and customized spectral emission lines to probe specific molecules, it may provide a fast and cost-efficient solution with excellent usability.
Two multi-path interferometers were developed using cleaved silica microspheres. A microsphere on top of a singlemode fiber tip was cleaved with a focused ion beam. The asymmetry introduced in the structure generates a new set of optical paths due to random reflections inside the microsphere. The obtained reflection spectrum presents a random-like interferometric behavior with strong spectral modulation of around 3 dB amplitude. Two distinct regions can be observed when a fast Fourier transform is applied. The first involves two cavities at a lower frequency and the second region involves a band of frequencies that is originated by the random interferometric reflections. These two spectral characteristics can be separated using low-pass and high-pass filters, respectively. A correlation method was used to obtain a temperature response from the two-cavity component. A similar structure was also created in a microsphere of multimode fiber. The microsphere was cleaved by polishing the structure with a certain angle. The interference between the different optical paths can be seen as the superposition of several two-wave interferometers, which can be discriminated through signal processing. Temperature sensing was also explored with this structure. The sensitivity to temperature is more than 3-fold for smaller cavities. Moreover, a sensitivity enhancement is also verified if a correlation method is used.
Fiber Bragg gratings (FBGs) have widespread applications in security, information, structural health monitoring, and biophotonics. In telecom applications, FBG inscription has reached a high level of maturity, but remains mainly limited to germanium doped photosensitive single mode fibers. Special applications, like filtering in light harvesting fibers or resonator mirrors for fiber lasers have to deal with special aspects which make the design and realization of FBGs a challenging task. One aspect is the extended wavelength range of these applications. Another aspect is the increasing demand to inscribe fiber Bragg gratings in non-photosensitive germanium-free fibers. Therefore, novel concepts of photosensitivity are proposed. Finally, to increase the amount of captured light the size of the fiber core and the numerical aperture have also to be increased. This goes along with multimode operation and prevents good filtering properties of Bragg gratings.
A Mach-Zehnder interferometer was created from a cavity milled in the taper region next to a microfiber knot resonator. A focused ion beam was used to mill the cavity with 47.8 μm in length. The microfiber knot resonator was created from an 11 μm diameter taper, produced using a filament fusion splicer. After milling the cavity, the microfiber knot resonator spectrum is still visible. The final response of the presented sensor is a microfiber knot resonator spectrum modulated by the Mach-Zehnder interference spectrum. A preliminary result of -8935 ± 108 nm/RIU was obtained for the refractive index sensitivity of the cavity component in a refractive index range of n = 1.333 to 1.341. Simultaneous measurement of refractive index and temperature using this combined structure is a future goal.
The interaction of a fiber Bragg grating and longitudinal acoustic waves in a highly birefringent suspended-core fiber is investigated for the realization of a multi-wavelength reflection property. The modulated grating couples power from the fast and slow polarization modes to shifted superposed modes supported by the grating. The grating reflectivity of the superposed modes are tuned by the voltage of an electrical signal. Up to five different wavelength reflection peaks have been generated indicating new possibilities for compact and fast fiber-integrated multi-wavelength dynamic filters.
Fiber lasers provide the perfect basis to develop broadly tunable lasers with high efficiency, excellent beam quality and user-friendly operation as they are increasingly demanded by applications in biophotonics and spectroscopy. Recently, a novel tuning scheme has been presented using fiber Bragg grating (FBG) arrays as fiber-integrated spectral filters containing many standard FBGs with different feedback wavelengths. Based on the discrete spectral sampling, these reflective filters uniquely enable tailored tuning ranges and broad bandwidths to be implemented into fiber lasers. Even though the first implementation of FBG arrays in pulsed tunable lasers based on a sigma ring resonators works with good emission properties, the laser wavelength is tuned by a changing repetition rate, which causes problems with applications in synchronized environments.
In this work, we present a modified resonator scheme to maintain a constant repetition rate over the tuning range and still benefit from the advantages of FBG arrays as filters. With a theta ring cavity and two counter propagating filter passes, the distributed feedback of the FBG array is compensated resulting in a constant pulse round trip time for each filter wavelength. Together with an adapted gating scheme controlling the emission wavelength with a modulator, the tuning principle has been realized based on a Ytterbium-doped fiber laser. We present first experimental results demonstrating a tuning range of 25nm, high signal contrast and pulse durations of about 10ns. With the prospect of tailored tuning ranges, this pulsed fiber-integrated laser may be the basis to tackle challenging applications in spectroscopy.
Focused ion beam technology is combined with dynamic chemical etching to create microcavities in tapered optical fiber tips, resulting in fiber probes for temperature and refractive index sensing. Dynamic chemical etching uses hydrofluoric acid and a syringe pump to etch standard optical fibers into cone structures called tapered fiber tips where the length, shape, and cone angle can be precisely controlled. On these tips, focused ion beam is used to mill several different types of Fabry-Perot microcavities. Two main cavity types are initially compared and then combined to form a third, complex cavity structure. In the first case, a gap is milled on the tapered fiber tip which allows the external medium to penetrate the light guiding region and thus presents sensitivity to external refractive index changes. In the second, two slots that function as mirrors are milled on the tip creating a silica cavity that is only sensitive to temperature changes. Finally, both cavities are combined on a single tapered fiber tip, resulting in a multi-cavity structure capable of discriminating between temperature and refractive index variations. This dual characterization is performed with the aid of a fast Fourier transform method to separate the contributions of each cavity and thus of temperature and refractive index. Ultimately, a tapered optical fiber tip probe with sub-standard dimensions containing a multi-cavity structure is projected, fabricated, characterized and applied as a sensing element for simultaneous temperature and refractive index discrimination.
Thulium (Tm)-doped fiber lasers offer a broad emission bandwidth in the 2-μm region, providing the perfect basis to develop broadly tunable laser sources, e.g., for spectroscopic applications. Recently, a tuning principle for pulsed fiber lasers has been reported, which is based on a fiber Bragg grating (FBG) array as a discrete spectral filter. This concept uniquely combines an unrivaled spectral freedom for tailored tuning ranges with a monolithic layout preserving the inherent advantages of fiber-integrated systems. In this study, we investigate this discrete tuning method using a Tm-doped fiber laser in the spectral domain around 1950 nm. While the laser emits linearly polarized light based on a polarization-maintaining (PM) resonator, we also examine the possibility of using standard FBG arrays inscribed in non-PM fiber. In order to highlight the prospect for tunable high-power operation, the tunable seed laser is implemented in a master oscillator power amplifier configuration scaling the average power to ∼28 W. With a tuning range of up to 76 nm, the emission characteristics of the system are investigated showing pulse durations down to 11 ns and a very good spectral signal contrast with narrow linewidth.
Fiber probe structures composed of two physical microcavities were created using focused ion beam technology. These
structures have a tip-like shape as they were milled in preciously etched tapered fiber tips. The microprobes are then
characterized for temperature and refractive index sensing using a signal filtering technique to discriminate signals from
distinct microcavities. Using fast Fourier transforms combined with band-pass filters, it is possible to reconstruct the
spectra of each cavity independently and thus measure their individual spectral shifts.
Over the past years, Thulium (Tm) -doped fiber lasers in the 2μm region have gained a lot of interest due to many potential applications in materials processing and biophotonics. Based on the broad gain regions spanning from 1800nm to 2100nm, they offer the perfect basis to implement broadly tunable and user-friendly light sources like they are increasingly demanded in spectroscopic applications. Recently, a novel tuning mechanism based on a fiber Bragg grating (FBG) array as versatile spectral filter has been reported. This concept combines unique spectral freedom for customized tuning ranges and ultrabroad bandwidths with a fiber-integrated setup in order to maintain the advantages of the waveguide geometry. In this work, we demonstrate such a dispersion tuned and pulsed fiber laser in the Tm domain around 1950nm using a modulator and a discrete FBG array to control the emission wavelength. In order to comply with the demands of potential applications in biophotonics, for the first time, this tuning concept is realized in a polarization maintaining (PM) configuration ensuring linearly polarized output. While a simple FBG array is employed containing five gratings inscribed in PM fiber, we also outline the prospect to implement FBGs fabricated in a standard single mode fiber. The emission characteristics of the system are investigated showing pulse durations down to 11ns and a good spectral signal contrast. In order to highlight the prospect for tunable high-power operation, we have also implemented an amplification stage scaling the average power to more than 25W.
Focused ion beam milling is used on chemically etched tapered fiber tips to create fiber Bragg gratings. These fiber Bragg gratings are based on a modulation of silica and external medium. This leads to a wide and structured spectrum obtained due to imperfections and the inherent structure of the tip. The fiber Bragg gratings presented are very short and have a length of 27 μm and 43 μm and are milled on the tapered fiber tip. They are characterized in the high temperature range 350-850ºC and a sensitivity of 14.4 pm/K is determined.
Fiber Bragg gratings as key components in telecommunication, fiber lasers, and sensing systems usually rely on the Bragg condition for single mode fibers. In special applications, such as in biophotonics and astrophysics, high light coupling efficiency is of great importance and therefore, multimode fibers are often preferred. The wavelength filtering effect of Bragg gratings in multimode fibers, however is spectrally blurred over a wide modal spectrum of the fiber. With a well-designed all solid multicore microstructured fiber a good light guiding efficiency in combination with narrow spectral filtering effect by Bragg gratings becomes possible.
An ytterbium-doped fiber laser mode-locked by the interaction of a fiber Bragg grating and longitudinal acoustic waves in a suspended core fiber is experimentally investigated. An optimized design of an acousto-optic modulator is also proposed. The results indicate output pulses with a width of less than 550 ps at a repetition rate of 10 MHz. The reduction of the power consumed by the transducer and the grating length points out to more efficient, compact and fast acousto-optic modulators for mode-locked all-fiber lasers.
Sapphire based optical fibers provide an attractive basis for ultra-high temperature stable optical sensor elements. Fiber Bragg gratings can be inscribed in such fibers by means of femtosecond-laser pulses with a wavelength of 400 nm in combination with a two-beam phase mask interferometer. We have investigated crystalline optical fibers as well as structured sapphire-derived all glass optical fibers with aluminum content in the core of up to 50 mol%. The reflection properties, the index modulation and the attenuation effects will be discussed. Results concerning the temperature and strain sensitivity for use as sensor elements at high temperatures will be presented.
Fiber lasers provide the foundation to combine an excellent beam quality in single mode operation with a robust and highly efficient design. Based on fiber-integrated configurations, they are employed in many different applications ranging from industry over research to medical technology. However, there is lots of potential to approach even new fields of applications e.g. in spectroscopy based on tunable systems with an adjustable emission wavelength. We present a novel tuning concept for pulsed fiber-integrated laser systems using an array of fiber Bragg gratings (FBGs) as discrete spectral filter. Based on stacking many standard FBGs, the bandwidth and filter properties are easy to scale by increasing the number of gratings allowing huge tuning ranges as well as tailored tuning characteristics. In this work, we demonstrate the potential of this electrically controlled tuning concept. Using an Ytterbium (Yb)-doped fiber laser, we investigate the general tuning characteristics. With variable pulse durations in the nanosecond regime, we demonstrate high signal contrast (~45 dB), excellent wavelength stability and narrow linewidth (<15 GHz). In order to highlight the great spectral freedom, a tuning range of 74 nm in the Yb band is realized which, to the best of our knowledge, is the largest bandwidth reported based on a monolithic filter design.
We demonstrate a distributed measurement technique to observe temperature changes along pumped Yb-doped fibers. This technique is based on an array of fiber Bragg gratings acting as a temperature sensor line. The Bragg gratings are inscribed directly into the Yb-doped fiber core using high-intensity ultrashort laser pulses and an interferometric setup. We studied the temperature evolution in differently co-doped Yb fibers during optical pumping and identified different effects contributing to the observed temperature increase. We found that preloading of fibers with hydrogen supports the formation of Yb2+ during UV irradiation and has a large impact on fiber temperature during pumping. The proposed technique can be applied to investigate the homogeneity of pump absorption in active fibers and to support spatially resolved photodarkening measurements.
In this paper, improved fabrication and calibration techniques of Fiber Bragg Gratings (FBG) for very high temperature sensing applications up to more than 1500 °C will be presented. The fibers used are single crystalline sapphire fibers, which are applicable in such high temperature ranges due to their high melting point at 2040 °C and their extreme thermal stability. The inscription of the FBGs was performed by the second harmonic wave of a Ti:Sa-femtosecond laser system. With pulses of 400 nm wavelength first order gratings could be achieved. Using a two-beam phase mask interferometer, grating arrays within a wide spectral range have been fabricated with only one phase mask and without additional calibration routine. The inscribed grating arrays were wavelength-calibrated using a reference FBG, and their temperature sensitivity was evaluated.
Here we report on the inscription of fiber Bragg gratings with two beam interferometry and deep ultraviolet femtosecond laser exposure. This allows to target first order Bragg grating reflections from 2000 nm down to 660 nm without the need for germanium doping or hydrogen loading. The grating in the visible region is remarkable because it bases on a femtosecond laser induced structural size around 110 nm.
A combination of focused ion beam milling and chemical etching is proposed for the creation of Fabry-Pérot cavities in microwires. Both simple cavities and cantilevers are created on 15 μm-diameter microwires and characterized in temperature. The cantilever structure shows sensitivity to vibration and is capable of measuring frequencies in the range 1 Hz – 40 kHz.
In this work we present a novel highly Ge doped microstructured fiber design dedicated for fiber Bragg grating (FBG) inscription and longitudinal strain sensing. Three series of the reported fiber differentiated by air-hole diameters were drawn and presented. After numerical analysis of the propagation conditions (with effective refractive index, loss and mode area calculated) in the real structures, the fibers were subjected to femtosecond FBG inscription. We show the resulting typical FBG spectra, as well as measure the longitudinal strain sensitivity of the fabricated samples and its dependence on the microstructure geometry. An increase of approx. 4% in the Bragg wavelength strain sensitivity was noticed for an increase of the large air-hole diameter of approx. 10%.
Today fiber Bragg gratings are commonly used in sensing technology as well as in telecommunications. Numerous requirements must be satisfied for their application as a sensor such as the number of sensors per system, the measurement resolution and repeatability, the sensor reusability as well as the sensor costs. In addition current challenges need to be met in the near future for sensing fibers to keep and extend their marketability such as the suitability for sterilization, hydrogen darkening or the separation of strain and temperature (or pressure and temperature). In this contribution we will give an outlook about trends and future of the fiber Bragg gratings in sensing technologies. Specifically, we will discuss how the use of draw tower grating technology enables the production of tailored Bragg grating sensing fibers, and we will present a method of separating strain and temperature by the use of a single Bragg grating only, avoiding the need for additional sensors to realize the commonly applied temperature compensation.
Microstructured optical fibers (MOF) sometimes also referred to as photonic crystal fibers (PCF) have been a subject of extensive research for over a decade. This is mainly due to the fact that by changing the microstructure geometry (e.g. distribution and size of the air-holes) fiber properties can be significantly modified to better fit specific applications. In this manuscript we present a novel fiber design with three large air-holes neighboring the core and report on how the air-hole diameter influences the effective refractive index strain sensitivity. As direct measurement of the effective refractive index change may be complex and challenging, we propose to use fiber Bragg gratings (FBG) in our sensing set up. The Bragg wavelength is a function of the effective refractive index, hence the external strain changes can be monitored through the Bragg wavelength shift with a simple optical spectrometer. Furthermore we also include an analysis of the fibers temperature sensitivity.
In this paper we demonstrate a Raman fiber oscillator for the generation of radially and azimuthally polarized beams. The Raman fiber oscillator comprises a high NA fiber and two Fiber-Bragg Gratings (FBGs). Due to the high NA of the fiber, radially and azimuthally polarized modes are guided with their own effective refractive indexes, i.e. they are not degenerated. Therefore, the FBGs reflect these modes at different wavelengths. The mode that oscillates in the resonator can be selected by controlling the coupling lens and the polarization of the pump beam. Unfortunately, at the output of the fiber oscillator the output beams exhibit a non-circularly symmetric intensity profile as a result of a slightly elliptical fiber core. Consequently, the impact of elliptical cores on the polarization degeneracy has been analyzed in detail. In order to compensate for the elliptical core we applied a transverse force on the last few cm of the fiber. With this force the waveguide characteristic of the fiber is changed in such a way that a radially or azimuthally polarized doughnutshaped beam profile is observed. Thereby an output power of 480mW (400mW) was reached for the azimuthal (radial) polarization. The presented concept is wavelength agile and suitable for all-fiber microscopic setups, especially for STED-microscopy.
Photonic crystal fibers (PCF), sometimes also referred to as microstructured fibers (MSF), have been a subject of
extensive research for over a decade. This is mainly due to the fact that by changing the geometry and distribution of the
air holes the fiber properties can be significantly modified and tailored to specific applications. In this paper we present
the results of a numerical analysis of the influence of the air-hole distribution on the sensitivity of the propagated modes’
effective refractive index to externally applied longitudinal strain. We propose an optimal strain sensitive fiber design,
with a number of fibers drawn and experimentally evaluated to confirm the theoretical results. Furthermore as the direct
measurement of the effective refractive index change may be complex and challenging in field environment, we propose
to use fiber Bragg gratings (FBG) in our sensing set-up. As the Bragg wavelength is a function of the effective refractive
index, the external strain changes can be monitored through the Bragg wavelength shift with a simple optical
spectrometer. Moreover, since the PCF is also optimized for low-loss splicing with standard single mode fiber, our novel
sensor head can be used with standard off-the-shelf components in complex multiplexed sensing arrays, with the
measured signal transmitted to and from the sensor head by standard telecom fibers, which significantly reduces costs.
We demonstrate a spatially distributed measurement technique to observe temperature changes along a pumped Ybdoped fiber. The technique is based on an array of fiber Bragg gratings acting as temperature sensor line. The Bragg gratings are inscribed directly into the actively doped fiber core using high intensity laser pulses and an interferometric setup. We studied the temperature evolution in differently doped fibers under pumping conditions and find different effects contributing to the observed temperature increase. To avoid an additional heating caused by pump-induced photodarkening, we measure the spatially resolved temperature profile during pumping along a photodarkening-reduced, cerium co-doped fiber.
KEYWORDS: Germanium, Single mode fibers, Fiber Bragg gratings, Interferometers, Temperature metrology, Temperature sensors, Fiber optics sensors, Sensors, Cladding, Refractive index
In the present work, the use of a single mode fiber (SMF) with high Germanium doped core as temperature sensor is studied. The fiber core consists of a 1.1 μm highly germanium doped step index waveguide surrounded by a pedestal of 3.5 μm diameter. The outer diameter of the fiber is 125 μm. A short stub of ~2 mm is used in the fabrication of the interferometer. The highly germanium doped fiber is spliced between two standard SMF. In one of the splices both fibers are ideally aligned, in the other splice a small misalignment between the fibers is done. An annealing process is made for 5 hours at 850°C which results in a good operation stability up to 700°C. A wavelength shift as a function of temperature of 76 pm/°C is reported. To demonstrate the interferometer efficiency, a fiber Bragg grating is written in the highly germanium doped core and tested for temperature response. A temperature sensitivity of 13pm/°C was demonstrated. The interferometer fabrication requires only a few and easy steps. Due to the standard splices made between the fibers, the device is robust. We believe that the sensor may be used under harsh environmental conditions, since it shows a high sensitivity and a small size in combination with great robustness.
We present a laser drilling technology eminently suitable for structuring of solid glass preforms for microstructured optical fibers (MOF). This technology allows fiber designs that can not be easily adressed by stack and draw technology. As an example, we present a four ring hexagonal hole structure drilled in a silica rod over a length of 80 mm at ILT. The fiber drawn from this preform was used for absorption measurements and fiber Bragg grating inscription experiments at IPHT. Geometrical aspects are compared to those of a MOF with a similar structure made by the stack and draw technology.
We have investigated the possibility to use a step-chirped fiber Bragg grating array for a time-delay-spectrometer. This concept allows a simultaneous spectral and temporal characterization of pulsed light in the nanosecond regime which can also be applied for the investigation of single pulses. A spectral resolution in the 100 picometer range has been achieved and used for the characterization of laser pulses in the nanosecond range.
Triangular nanowires that present a high birefringence and a very strong confinement were fabricated by tapering suspended-core fibers (SCFs) down to core diameters below 1000 nm. Each nanowire presented a high birefringence with an order of magnitude of 10 −3 . As the spectra of the SCF tapers inserted in fiber loop mirrors can be used to generate a sinusoidal interference pattern from the two main modes (fast and slow axis), a nanowire was employed as a sensing element in a Sagnac interferometer for measuring temperature. Temperature sensitivity was determined to be −56.2 pm/K using a triangular nanowire of 810 nm in-circle diameter when compared with that of a conventional untapered SCF whose temperature sensitivity is −2.1 pm/K .
Fiber Bragg gratings (FBG) are one of the most successful fiber optic technologies with very interesting perspectives for application in fiber optic sensing. It has been already reported that the possibility of its fabrication in novel microstructured fibers (MSF), creating a unique 3D structure, can significantly improve their performance and sensing properties. In this paper we present the results of FBG inscription in a dual-mode highly birefringent (HB) MSF with enhanced polarimetric strain sensitivity of the second order mode, as its mode maxima are closer to the cladding air-holes, where the strain distribution during fiber elongation is the highest. We perform an analysis and comparison of the FBG reflection and transmission characteristics, showing the effects of power coupling to cladding radiation modes. Furthermore we present the results of temperature and longitudinal strain sensitivities of the particular modes visible in the grating reflection spectrum followed by conclusions with reference to our previously reported results of polarimetric strain and temperature measurements of a similar fiber design.
Fiber Bragg gratings (FBG) were inscribed in single crystalline sapphire fibers by fs-laser irradiation. Due to the used multi-mode air clad fiber a sapphire-FBG spectra showa a wide asymmetric peak with a half width of 7 nm. Different mathematical peak functions were tested to determine a fiber Bragg wavelength. It was shown that the shift of the calculated Bragg wavelengths in dependence on temperature is identical for the different peak functions. The determination of the fiber Bragg wavelength shift with a resolution of 10pm allows temperature measurements within an accuracy of ±1°C in the temperature range up to 1500°C. Sapphire FBG were used to measure the temperature distribution and thermal fluctuations within an inductive heated furnace in the range from 100°C to 1500°C.
A triangular nanowire is fabricated by tapering a suspended-core fiber and reducing the core size below one micrometer. The triangular nanowire has a high birefringence with an order of magnitude of 10-3 and when introduced in a fiber loop mirror presents a sinusoidal interference pattern generated by the fast and slow modes of the nanowire. The suspended nanowires were characterized in temperature and strain and enhanced sensitivities were found for both parameters when compared with untapered structures.
KEYWORDS: Interferometers, Cladding, Sensors, Temperature sensors, Single mode fibers, Temperature metrology, Germanium, Fiber Bragg gratings, Fiber optics sensors, Refractive index
In this work, the use of a photonic crystal fiber (PCF) with a highly Germanium (Ge) doped core is exploited as temperature sensor for the first time (to our knowledge). The PCF has an outer diameter of 125 μm and consists of a microstructured cladding with an average pitch and hole diameter of Λ=4.6 μm and d=1.0 μm, respectively. A short PCF stub (~2.0 mm) is used for the preparation of an interferometer. The PCF is spliced between single mode fibers (SMF), meaning that the PCF holes are fully collapsed in the splicing region while the Ge-doped core is still present. The splice parameters were changed to make a short collapse region of (200±30) μm. The first splice is used to excite the fundamental core mode and multiple higher order cladding modes by applying a core-to-core offset. The second splice acts as spatial filter to detect only the light which is guided in and near the core. The interferometer is heated up to 500°C and the total wavelength shift with the temperature variation found to be 74 pm/°C which is more than 5 times higher than a fiber Bragg grating at 1550 nm (13 pm/°C). The PCF interferometer preparation requires only a few steps, cleaving and splicing the fibers. The short length, the high thermal sensitivity and stability of the structure make the device attractive for many sensing applications including high temperature ranges.
We demonstrate the inscription of fiber Bragg gratings in single crystalline sapphire using the second harmonic of a Ti:Sa-amplified femtosecond laser system. With the laser wavelength of 400 nm first order gratings were fabricated. The interferometric inscription was performed out using the Talbot interferometer. This way, not only single gratings but also multiplexed sensor arrays were realized. For evaluating of the sensor signals an adapted multimodal interrogation setup was build up, because the sapphire fiber is an extreme multimodal air clad fiber. Due to the multimodal reflection spectrum, different peak functions have been tested to evaluate the thermal properties of the grating. The temperature sensors were tested for high temperature applications up to 1200°C with a thermal sensitivity in the order of 25 pm/K which is more than the doubled of that one reached with Bragg gratings in conventional silica fibers.
The combination of Raman spectroscopy with fiber optic probes enables analyzing the biochemical composition of tissues without markers in a non-destructive way. A small diameter (1 mm) fiber optic probe with one excitation fiber, 11 detection fibers and integrated filters (Emvision, USA) was recently coupled to a Raman spectrometer (Kaiser Optical Systems) to study excised arteries ex vivo and rabbit arteries in vivo. The current contribution introduces a novel fiber optic Raman probe with in-line fiber Bragg gratings (FBGs) as notch filter in the collection path. Multi-core single-mode fibers (MCSMF) were drawn integrating 19 and 61 single-mode cores to improve collection efficiency. Raman probes were assembled with one fiber for excitation and six MCSMF with inscribed FBGs for collection. The diameter of the 6 around 1 geometry can be reduced down to 0.375 mm. Background suppression, collection efficiency and distance dependence of the probes were characterized and first Raman measurements are presented. The advantages of the novel probes are discussed and further applications to Raman-on-chip detection schemes are described.
In this paper we present the results of theoretical characterization of a few-mode birefringent microstructured fiber
dedicated for fiber Bragg grating (FBG) inscription. The spectral characteristics of FBGs written (with a nanosecond and
femtosecond laser Talbot interferometer setups) in the core region of the investigated fiber are presented and discussed.
We compare the experimental results of the polarimetric strain sensitivity with our previously reported data, outlining
perspectives for developing a highly sensitive (with strain sensitivity of second order mode two orders of magnitude
higher in comparison to fundamental mode), temperature independent, FBG based strain transducer.
We demonstrate volume Bragg gratings inscribed in S-TIH53 glass. S-TIH53 is in the proper meaning not
photosensitive; therefore we used a fs-laser system for the inscription process. The grating structure was formed in a
Talbot interferometer and was investigated with help of the external Bragg reflection method. With this method we could
measure the reflectivity profile and thereto the size of the grating. To ensure that the generated gratings are no surface or
absorption gratings the probes were investigated by a microscope and absorption measurements and heating experiments
were done.
The possibility of manufacturing highly birefringent (HB) microstructured optical fibers (MOF) made these fiber types
very attractive for use in sensing applications. In contrary to traditional optical fibre sensors, properly designed MOF
based components do not need temperature compensation as their birefringence remains insensitive to temperature
changes. Furthermore the polarimetric strain sensitivity can significantly increase (even two orders of magnitude
according to our previously reported results) for higher order modes, as their mode maxima get closer to the holey region
of the fiber, hence are subjected to higher strain distribution. In this paper we present the results of numerical modeling
of the propagation conditions in the HB dual-mode MOF including effective refractive index, confinement losses and
birefringence calculations. Furthermore we show and discuss the spectral characteristics of fiber Bragg grating (FBG)
structures written in the dedicated fiber with two technologies (with a nanosecond and femtosecond UV laser sources). A
comparison of the theoretical and experimental values of effective refractive index and birefringence of the fundamental
and second order modes is also included. We show the preliminary results of the fabricated structures strain response
measurements and discuss ideas of increasing the structures strain sensitivity.
Suspended core fiber tapers with different cross sections (from 70μm to 120μm diameter) were produced by filament
heating. Before obtaining the taper, the spectral behavior of the suspended core fiber presents multimode interference.
When the taper is made an intermodal interference is observed. This effect is clearly visible for high taper reduction. The
spectral response of the microtaper inside the suspended core fiber is similar to a beat of two interferometers. The
microtaper was subjected to strain, and an increase of sensitivity with the reduction of the transverse area was observed.
When the taper was immersed in liquids with different refractive indices or subjected to temperature variations, no spectral change occurred.
We report on the inscription of FBGs in rare earth doped optical fibers, the reduction of inherent absorption effects in the
FBGs and the FBG-based temperature measurement within the core of actively doped fiber samples during core
pumping. Besides a temperature increase due to the quantum defect of Yb-ions a change in temperature during pumping
was observed and fits qualitatively well to the parallel measured photodarkening evolution.
Martin Becker, Manfred Rothhardt, Kerstin Schröder, Sebastian Voigt, Jan Mehner, Andreas Teubner, Thomas Lüpke, Christoph Thieroff, Matthias Krüger, Christoph Chojetzki, Hartmut Bartelt
The combination of fiber Bragg grating arrays integrated in a soft plastic tube is promising for high resolution
manometry (HRM) where pressure measurements are done with high spatial resolution. The application as a
medical device and in vivo experiments have to be anticipated by characterization with a measurement setup that
simulates natural conditions. Good results are achieved with a pressure chamber which applies a well-defined
pressure with a soft tubular membrane. It is shown that the proposed catheter design reaches accuracies down
to 1 mbar and 1 cm.
The idea of fabricating fiber Bragg gratings during the drawing process of an optical fiber dates back almost 20 years.
The application of a transverse holographic writing method on a fiber draw tower offers a promising solution for a highly
effective Bragg grating production. Because of the high technology requirements it took more than 10 years to develop
the method into a reliable process. The improvements in the technical development during the last five years enable
today a cost efficient industrial production of draw tower grating (DTG®) arrays. In this paper we report about new
possibilities of the improved process with respect to the grating type (type I gratings, type II gratings), the coating type
(2ORMOCER®, metals) and the fiber diameter (125μm, 80μm and below). Furthermore, we present an example for the
application of draw tower fiber Bragg gratings in sensing technologies for medical applications.
Regeneration of fiber Bragg gratings has been shown to be an effective method for improving
the temperature stability well beyond the limit of conventional gratings. Strong gratings,
which require a high number of laser pulses, have been used mostly in the past for the
additional regeneration process. Specific production methods such as draw tower inscription
allow only single laser pulse illumination. Such a process can provide, however, versatile and
cost effective Bragg grating arrays for sensor applications. Therefore, a combination of single
pulse gratings and a regeneration process is of great practical interest. We have demonstrated
that an increase of the temperature stability up to 800°C for arrays of single pulse gratings is
possible. Furthermore we observe a stronger regeneration for 800 nm wavelength gratings
with considerably higher reflectivity after the thermal process compared to gratings for the
1550nm wavelength range.
Using femtosecond (fs) radiation and multi-photon absorption processes for fiber Bragg grating (FBG) inscription offers
the advantage of writing FBGs independent of the chemical fiber composition. Especially for fiber laser applications the
fabrication of FBGs integrated in rare earth doped fibers is a favorable option for monolithic fiber lasers. In this paper we
report on the growth and stability of femtosecond generated fiber Bragg gratings in different rare earth doped fibers. For
this purpose we use two different fs laser wavelengths at 266 nm and 400 nm and a modified Talbot- interferometer
setup for the generation of first order Bragg gratings. We study the growth characteristics of FBGs in terms of
reflectivity, Bragg wavelength and spectral grating width during the writing with UV and VIS fs radiation. For these
experiments fibers drawn in-house at the IPHT are used, which possess varying contents of Ytterbium and/or Cerium
with a comparable Phosphor and Aluminum co-doping and a standard geometry (125 μm cladding, 8-10 μm core
diameter). We observe different kinds of grating growth processes depending on the inscription wavelength and the
specific doping level of the fibers. It is possible to produce high reflective Type I gratings by UV fs exposure and high
reflective Type II gratings with higher temperature stability by VIS fs exposure. The transformation from Type I to Type
II gratings with a 400 nm inscription wavelength is studied in dependence on the exposure conditions. Our experimental
results underline the role of doping for fs material photosensitivity and for FBG inscription process.
Fiber Bragg gratings (FBGs) are attractive as reflector elements in fully integrated all-fiber laser systems. Furthermore,
FBGs made with femtosecond laser technology allow to reduce splice connections in the fiber, since
no special photosensitive fibers are required. Fiber Bragg grating inscription with deep ultraviolet femtosecond
laser (267 nm) and two beam interferometry allows to target germanium-free and non-photosensitive fibers
while maintaining versatility in the choice of the output wavelength of the fiber laser. This concept offers the
potential of gratings with high spatial resolution, great flexibility and good homogeneity and complements the
methods of point-by-point inscription at 800 nm or of phase-mask inscription with 400 nm femtosecond laser
exposure. We report on the application of the interferometric fiber Bragg grating inscription technology to build
a grating-stabilized fiber laser with high beam purity. Output powers up 160 W have been achieved.
The idea of fabricating fiber Bragg gratings already during the drawing of a fiber dates back almost 20 years. The
application of a transverse holographic writing method on a draw tower offers a promising solution for a highly effective
Bragg grating production. Because of the high technology requirements it took more than 10 years to develop the method
into a reliable process. During the last five years the improvements in the technical development enables cost effective
industrial production of draw tower gratings (1DTG®). In this paper we report about new possibilities of the improved
process with respect to the grating type (type I gratings, type II gratings), the coating type (2ORMOCER®, metals) and
the fiber type and diameter (125μm, 80μm and below). Furthermore, we present examples for the application of draw
tower fiber Bragg gratings in sensing technologies for medical applications.
This paper presents simulation and experimental results of orientation-dependent transverse load fiber sensors using fiber
Bragg gratings written in four-hole suspended core fibers. Resonant peak shifts and splitting of fiber Bragg gratings were
studied as functions of the applied transverse load and its orientation. Both simulation and experimental results revealed
that response of fiber Bragg grating in suspended core fibers are sensitive to both orientation and magnitude of transverse
strains.
The idea of Bragg gratings, generated during the drawing process of a fiber dated back almost
20 years ago. The technical improvement of the DTG process results today in high reliable
and cost effective Bragg gratings for versatile application in the optical fiber sensor market.
Due to the single pulse exposure of the fiber, the gratings behave typically like type I gratings
with respect to their temperature stability. This means that such gratings only work up to
temperatures lower than 300 °C. To increase temperature stability we combined DTG arrays
with hydrogen loading and a thermal regeneration process which enables their use in high
temperature environment. The regenerated draw tower gratings are suitable for temperatures
up to 900°C.
Fiber Bragg grating based fiber lasers are promising for stable all fiber laser solutions. Standard methods for
fiber Bragg gratings in fiber lasers apply germanium doped passive fibers which are connected to the amplifier
section of the fiber laser with a splice. The connection is usually recoated using a low-index polymer coating to
maintain guidance properties for the pump light. At high pump powers the spliced connections are affected by
absorbed pump light and are prone to thermal degradation.
Fiber Bragg gratings made with femtosecond laser exposure allow the direct inscription of resonator mirrors
for fiber lasers into the amplifying section of the fiber laser. Such a technology has a number of advantages. The
number of splices in the laser cavity is reduced. Fiber Bragg grating inscription does not relay on hydrogenation
to increase the photosensitivity of the fiber. This is of special interest since hydrogen loading in large mode area
fibers is a time consuming procedure due to the diffusion time of hydrogen in silica glass. Finally, one gets direct
access to fiber Bragg gratings in air-clad fibers.
In this paper we use a two beam interferometric inscription setup in combination with an frequency tripled
femtosecond laser for grating inscription. It allows to write fiber Bragg gratings in rare earth doped fibers with
a reflection wavelength span that covers the Ytterbium amplification band. Reflections with values higher than
90% have been realized.
MAMMUT (Mirror vibrAtion Metrolology systeM for the Unit Telescope) is an ESO funded feasibility project
for the development of a fiber interferometer prototype designed for optical path laser-metrology along the optical train
of the Unit Telescopes (UT) of the Very Large Telescope Interferometer (VLTI). Fast mechanical vibrations originating
in the VLTI cause fast variations of the optical path difference between two arms of the stellar interferometer, thus
reducing the contrast of measured interference fringes. MAMMUT aims at monitoring in real time the optical path
variations inside the Coudé train of the UT, for active control purposes.
MAMMUT features a 250-meter-long optical fiber which can be used to deliver and inject a laser beam at 1353 nm into
the UT. The injected beam can be dropped from the telescope in the Coudé room and interfered with a phase reference,
provided by the second 250-meter-long arm of the fiber interferometer. The optical path variations are measured
by means of an active homodyne scheme. Coherence between the beam at the injection point and the phase reference
is provided by active fiber stabilization, made possible by the implementation of an internal metrology channel
in MAMMUT.
Here we present the initial laboratory performance results of the MAMMUT prototype, which will be able to sense
optical path variations of +/- 5 μm with sub-10 nm precision within a bandwidth of at least 100 Hz.
The design flexibility of photonic crystal fibers has accelerated the development of specialty optical fibers for a wide
variety of applications. Optical fiber sensor applications for instance can benefit from this fiber technology. Fiber Bragg
grating inscriptions in photonic crystal fibers have been reported with inscription setups that go from continuous-wave to
femtosecond pulsed laser sources. However, the compatibility of the microstructures in these fibers with conventional
ultraviolet inscription techniques was never before investigated in a broad range of (Germanium doped) fibers.
We present UV laser induced dynamics of Bragg gratings growths in photonic crystal fibers with a hexagonal
arrangement of 6 rings of airholes around a Germanium doped core region. The average refractive index increase and the
refractive index modulation by the grating inscription process are compared for microstructures with several doping
levels, airhole filling factors, airhole pitch distance and fiber orientation. We show how the parameters of the
microstructure can influence the Bragg grating inscriptions. In addition we expand the range of fibers in which Bragg
gratings, with reflection strengths that are useable for sensing purposes, can be inscribed to fibers with Germanium
doping concentrations as low as 1.36 and 0.45 mol%.
We report about a thermal regeneration of fiber Bragg gratings written in photosensitive fibers without hydrogen loading
and with the use of UV nanosecond laser pulses. We observe a complex regenerative process which indicates a
secondary grating growth in an optical fiber by thermal activation. This process leads to an increased temperature
stability of the gratings up to 600 °C which differs from the commonly known Type I gratings. With the use of an
interferometric writing technique it is possible to generate arrays of regenerated fiber Bragg gratings (RFBGs) for sensor
networks. The writing conditions of such new type of gratings are investigated and the temperature behavior of these
RFBGs is analyzed. This type of gratings is suitable for high temperature sensor networks by combining the attributes of
good spectral shape and high reflectivity with high temperature stability showing no drift or hysteresis.
The high resolution manometry of the upper gastrointestinal tract is moving from research into clinical practice [1], [2].
Hence, there is a need for easy to use and patient friendly diagnosis devices for high resolution esophagus manometry.
Besides established methods like perfusion manometry and solid state sensor manometry the use of optical fiber sensor
catheters based on fiber Bragg gratings (FBGs) is gaining interest among physicians and medical equipment
manufacturers [3], [4]. This paper presents design, prototyping and characterization of a fiber Bragg grating pressure
sensor catheter. It uses a two layer polymer coating for the transformation of radial forces into axial strain of the optical
fiber. The sensitivity with respect to pressure is in the range of 1 mmHg, the spatial resolution is provided by 32 sensors
with a pitch of 10 mm. The coating technique is scalable to smaller diameters down to 0.5 mm and the flexibility is homogeneous over the whole length and can be adjusted by the choice of the coating materials.
In this contribution we present a simple and robust pulse shaping device based on coherent pulse stacking. The device is
based on fiber Bragg gratings written in a polarisation maintaining step index fiber and a fiber optical circulator. Up to
four pulse replicas are reflected by fiber Bragg gratings and interfere at the output of the device. Temperature control
allows tuning of the relative pulse amplitudes and phases of the pulse replicas. We experimentally demonstrated 235 ps
and 416 ps long flattop pulses with rising and falling edges shorter than 100 ps. In contrast to other pulse shaping
techniques the presented setup is robust, alignment free, provides excellent beam quality and is also suitable for pulse
durations up to several nanoseconds.
We report about a thermal regeneration of fiber Bragg gratings written in photosensitive fibers with
nanosecond laser pulses. We observe a complex regenerative process in a photosensitive fiber without hydrogen
loading which indicates a secondary grating growth in an optical fiber by thermal activation. This process is more
temperature stable than the commonly known color center modifications. The writing conditions of such new
grating types are investigated and the temperature behavior of these regenerated fiber Bragg gratings (RFBG) is
analyzed. The main application options are foreseen in the field of high temperature sensor systems by
combining the good spectral shape of a Type I grating with the high temperature stability of a Type II grating.
This paper describes the outcome of two groups which are involved in the specification of guidelines for fibre optic
sensors performance and testing. The "Guideline for use of fibre optic sensors" from the COST-299 guideline group, and
the "Optical Strain Sensor based on Fibre Bragg Grating" from the GESA guideline group of the VDI - "The Association
of German Engineers". Through appropriate specifications and definitions, both guidelines aim at enabling better
understanding of fibre optic sensors characteristics and performances. A concise view into the structure of the guidelines
is presented, emphasizing important aspects. The English version of the two guidelines will be available in autumn 2009.
We filled a refractive index matching liquid into the air holes of a Ge-doped solid-core microstructured optical fiber
(MOF) with a fiber Bragg grating (FBG) to investigate its switching functions. A type of thermo-optic in-fiber switch
based on the tunable bandgap effect was demonstrated in the fluid-filled FBG at the Bragg wavelength of 830nm, and its
extinction ratio depends strongly on the reflectivity of the FBG. Another type of optical switch with an extinction ratio of
30 dB was developed in the fluid-filled MOF at a long wavelength of 1200 or 1400nm, attributing to the absorption of
the filled liquid. Such two types of switches can turn on/off the light transmission via a small temperature adjustment of
±5 or ±10ºC, respectively, and will find useful applications in all-fiber optical communication systems.
We demonstrate the application of a fiber Bragg grating based sensor system as a distributed pressure sensing
catheter for the human esophagus. It allows space-time resolved measurements of the peristaltic waves of the
gullet. The sensor system comprises 30 fiber-optic pressure sensors in a single fiber with a spatial distance below
10 mm each. The sensors are fiber Bragg gratings that are manufactured during the drawing process of the fiber
and therefore show enhanced mechanical stability compared to fiber Bragg gratings with local recoating. A well
designed soft plastic coating wand will be used to convert local pressure variations into strain variations of the
optical fiber core.
Fiber Bragg Gratings (FBG's) are widely used in various fields, including optical fiber sensors. In this work, the temperature and strain response of C-band FBG's in pure silica four-leaf clover shaped suspended-core fibers was analyzed. These FBGs were fabricated by femtosecond laser exposure, which enabled the refractive index modulation of the pure-silica-core of the fibers. We compared the Bragg wavelength variation with strain and temperature for two different suspended-core fibers (256b2 and 256b5). The 256b2 fiber has a core diameter of 4,9 μm and a hollow hole inside the core with 1,4 μm; the 256b5 fiber has a solid silica core with a 7,2 μm diameter. For strain and temperature characterization, the sensing head was attached to a translation stage with a resolution of 1 μ;m and was placed in a tubular oven, which permits a temperature reading to be set with an error smaller than 0,1 °C. Both have shown the same sensitivity to strain (1,2 pm/με) but different sensitivity to temperature variation (8,4 pm/°C and 10 pm/°C respectively). The relative difference between the thermal coefficients of the two selected Bragg signatures is 16%. The results obtained indicate that these gratings can be used in optical fiber sensing, for example in the context of the important problem of simultaneous strain and temperature measurement.
Fiber Bragg gratings (FBGs) are today fundamental components in fiber optics. They can be used as sensors, in
signal processing, e.g. telecom applications, as wavelength stabilizers in fiber lasers or in dispersion compensators.
However, there are applications where the demand for fiber Bragg gratings is not compatible with standard
photosensitivity techniques like germanium doping or hydrogen loading. Examples are their use as laser-mirrors
in spliceless all fiber fiber-laser solutions or the fiber Bragg grating inscription in suspended core all silica fibers
for evanescent field sensing. Fiber Bragg grating inscription with femtosecond-laser exposure is a challenging new
method to realize grating structures for waveguides made of materials which do not provide UV-photosensitivity.
Especially fs-IR-inscription has been demonstrated for Bragg grating inscription in a variety of material systems
such as boron-silica glass, sapphire and pure silica glass. The feasibility of the phase mask FBG inscription
technique with DUV femtosecond lasers was also shown, which allows grating inscription even in pure silica
microstructured fibers. The phase mask inscription method requires that the fiber will be placed directly behind
the phase mask. While the laser beam should be focused onto the fiber to support nonlinear material interaction,
this inscription method also leads to phase mask degradations, presumably due to non-bridging oxygen holes
(NBOH). Our solution to avoid the mask degradation is to increase the space between fiber and phase mask
by using a Talbot-interferometer. Another advantage is the wavelength versatility of this inscription setup.
Due to the short temporal coherence length of the femtosecond pulses, the angular alignment variability of
the interferometer mirrors is limited and restrictions concerning the wavelength versatility of the interferometer
arise. Grating arrays in pure silica suspended core fibers are demonstrated as an example for the versatility of
the inscription arrangement.
The paper reports preparation and applicative aspects of two types of index guiding microstructured fibers (MOFs) with
germanium doped cores. The first fiber type has a solid core with graded germanium profile. It shows a high
photosensitivity compared to pure silica MOFs. We inscribed high-quality Bragg gratings with a reflectivity of 73%
without hydrogen loading. The solid core germanium doped MOF was spliced with standard silica fiber. The minimum
splice loss was about 1 dB at 1550 μm wavelength. A more complex MOF type was prepared with germanium doped
holey core in a silica holey cladding. The germanium doped core area includes seven holes in hexagonal arrangement
with equal diameter and pitch sizes. The holey core propagates a large area annulus mode. We show the suitability of this
MOF for chemical gas sensing by filling the core cavities with hydrocarbon analytes.
The inscription of fiber Bragg gratings with femtosecond laser radiation gives access to a wide range of new materials
beyond conventional UV-photosensitive and special hydrogen loaded materials. Typically, infrared wavelengths have
been used until now for femtosecond Bragg grating inscription. The use of UV femtosecond laser radiation gives more
direct access to two-photon absorption in materials with high band-gaps and could achieve gratings with high spatial
resolution. The refractive index modulation process for UV femtosecond pulses is then obtained as a combination of
classical color center absorption and high intensity structural modification. Besides the choice of the inscription laser
wavelength, also the inscription method is of great practical importance for the grating properties. The most commonly
used phase mask technique suffers from mask degradation effects in case of high intensity laser pulses and gives only
limited flexibility in variation of the Bragg reflection wavelengths. We have therefore investigated the use of an
interferometric technique in combination with UV femtosecond laser pulses. The relevant parameters of spatial and
temporal coherence have been considered and the wavelength tuning and reflection properties have been tested for
several different types of fibers.
Sensor related properties of a small core (4.1μm) Ge-doped photonic crystal fiber (PCF) are being reported. Fiber Bragg
gratings with 35% and almost 100 % reflectivity were written in the Ge-doped PCF before and after hydrogen loading,
respectively, by use of a UV laser. A 5.6pm/°C temperature sensitivity of the FBG was observed. Additionally, a novel
method is demonstrated to splice such PCF by use of a commercial fusion splicer with default splice parameters for
standard single mode fibers (SMF). No parameter adjustments are required to splice the PCF to various SMFs and a low
splice loss of 1.0 ~ 1.4dB can be achieved. No splice interface emerges at the splice joint, which is of advantage for the
sensing applications of such a PCF.
The combination of the functionalities of Fiber Bragg Gratings (FBGs) and Photonic Crystal Fibers (PCFs) has unveiled
new potential for FBG based sensors. The fabrication of FBGs in PCFs has been reported in literature. However, using
dedicated PCFs to improve the sensitivity of FBG-based sensors has received only limited attention. In this report we
therefore show how to eliminate some of the drawbacks of FBGs in conventional step-index fibers for sensor
applications by exploiting the design flexibility of PCFs. The added value of PCFs stems from the ability to design an
optical fiber in which an FBG acts as a sensor with a selective sensitivity, e.g. a sensor that is sensitive to strain but not
to temperature. For this purpose we use a PCF with a birefringence on the order of 10-3, which is one order of magnitude
larger than for conventional birefringent fibers. The two FBG reflection peaks are therefore significantly separated from
each other, e.g. 2 nm, which makes these FBGs suited for sensing purposes since both peaks can be unambiguously and
accurately identified. As a conclusion we summarize the advantages and disadvantages of our approach to design and
fabricate selective FBG-based sensors.
The doping of silica yields additional degrees of freedom to vary the optical parameters of index guided and band gap
controlled microstructured optical fibers (MOFs). Aside from the widely investigated rare earth doped microstructured
fibers for lasers also the integration of conventionally doped structural elements with passive functions into MOFs allows
to enhance effectively the optical performance of such fibers.
We report on progress in preparation of microstructured fibers with air holes and solid structural elements composed of
germanium and fluorine doped silica materials. The microstructured fibers were prepared by stack-and-draw technology.
The starting materials are preform rods and tubes with graded dopant concentration prepared by MCVD and sintering
technology. They were elongated to millimeter dimensions before packaging to final MOF preforms. We prepared MOFs
with both holey core and holey cladding. The microstructuring of the holey cladding is achieved with fluorine doped
capillaries.
Several applications have been investigated. The high photosensitivity of germanium-silica MOFs makes possible the
inscription of Bragg gratings with high efficiency. In fiber evanescent field sensors, such microstructured fibers improve
the overlap between the propagating light field and the analyte and allow therefore an increased sensitivity e.g. for gas
sensing with optical fibers. Solid MOFs with multiple cores in a highly precise array arrangement can been investigated
as a model system for the study of nonlinear dynamics in discrete optics.
We demonstrate the feasibility of a wavelength-switchable fiber-Bragg-grating external-cavity semiconductor laser source for direct modulation with active wavelength stabilization. The laser device works with two selectable wavelengths, can be directly modulated at 2.5 Gbit/s, and shows wavelength stability down to ±14 pm.
Fiber Bragg gratings (FBG) were manufactured during the fiber drawing process [draw tower grating (DTG)] with excellent reflectivity values. This was done in the region of 1550 nm by single pulses of a 248-nm excimer laser applied during the fiber drawing process of single mode fibers. An improved setup for the writing process and special photosensitive fibers enable the manufacture of type I DTG arrays with a reflectivity of up to 40% and type II DTGs with a reflectivity near 100%. Details of the setup and results of the DTG arrays and DTGs of type II are reported.
The inscription of fiber Bragg gratings during the drawing process is shown to be a very useful method to realize sensor arrays with high numbers of gratings and excellent mechanical strength and also type two gratings with high temperature stability.
Results of single pulse grating arrays with numbers between ten and >100 and definite wavelengths and positions for sensor applications were achieved at 1550nm and 830nm using new photosensitive fibers developed in IPHT. Single pulse type-1 gratings at 1550 nm with more than 30% Reflectivity were shown first time to our knowledge. The mechanical strength of this fiber with an Ormocer coating with those single pulse gratings is the same like standard telecomm fibers. Weibull plots of fiber tests will be shown. At 830 nm we reach more than 10% reflectivity with single pulse writing during the fiber drawing in photosensitive fibers with less than 16 dB transmission loss. These gratings are useful for stress and vibration sensing applications.
Type two gratings with reflectivity near 100% and smooth spectral shape and spectral width of about 1 nm reach temperature stability above 1200 K. They are also realized in the fiber drawing process. These Gratings are useful for temperature sensor applications.
Fiber Bragg Gratings (FBGs) as integrated spectral fiber reflection filters have found many applications in the fields of communication and sensing. Different techniques such as the phase mask method or the interferometric method are used for recording of such FBGs with UV-light. Interferometric recording during the fiber drawing process allows the realization of complex FBG-anays in a simple way. Such FBG-arrays are especially interesting for (quasi-) distributed fiber optical sensing systems allowing measurement in parallel at different locations. We will report about improvements in dynamic recording (single pulse recording) of such FBG-arrays achieving high reflection intensities in the range of 10%. This has been achieved by optimised doping and processing of the fiber. Applications of such FBGs for measuring parameters like temperature and strain will be discussed including a specific spectral measuring system based on a grating polychromator for multiplexed measurements.
The paper describes a micro mechanical Bragg grating acceleration sensor with enhanced sensitivity by force amplification. A new multiplexable and affordable interrogation scheme that uses two overlapping Bragg gratings within the sensor will be demonstrated.
We present results on optical and mechanical stability of single-layered acrylate coated fiber Bragg gratings produced on a draw tower, and exposed to high temperature annealing and to cyclic loading. Optical stability was assessed in terms of strain response and reflectivity changes with annealing temperatures up to 400 degree(s)C. Cyclic loading of Bragg gratings with mean stresses between 2.4 GPa and 3.0 GPa was compared with predictions made by using power-law based crack growth theory with parameters obtained by dynamic tensile tests. Comparison with theory confirms predicted strength decrease and lifetime reduction.
We describe the characterization of chirped phase masks made by electron beam writing and reactive ion etching in pure silica. The phase masks are designed to be used as diffractive optical elements in the process of manufacturing of fiber Bragg gratings (FBG). With the technologies available at our institutes grating structures with periods less than 200 nm can be realized in fused silica. Phase masks for writing ideally chirped FBG would require grating structures with continuously changing period. However because of the limited position accuracy of any e-beam writer, it is not possible to generate the desired continuous variation of the grating period. There appear discrete displacement steps with deviations of some nanometers. We obtain some information about the parameters of the phase mask from the properties of written fiber gratings. A sequence of short fiber gratings is written in order to characterize the phase mask. We use a slit to expose a definite small part of the phase mask pattern during the writing process of each short fiber grating. The center wavelength of each fiber grating is analyzed.
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