Computed ultrasound tomography in echo mode (CUTE) uses handheld pulse-echo ultrasound to image the spatial distribution of speed-of-sound. For a specific application of CUTE, the quantification of the fat fraction in the liver, convex probes are preferred to capture a large area of the liver in a sector scan. We demonstrate the adaptation of CUTE for such convex probes, showing phantom as well as in vivo results. We also discuss ideas of how to make use of the specific geometry of a convex probe in order to make such an implementation computationally efficient, and highlight the specific challenges when using convex compared to linear probes.
Significance: Quantitative optoacoustic (OA) imaging has the potential to provide blood oxygen saturation (SO2) estimates due to the proportionality between the measured signal and the blood’s absorption coefficient. However, due to the wavelength-dependent attenuation of light in tissue, a spectral correction of the OA signals is required, and a prime challenge is the validation of both the optical characterization of the tissue and the SO2.
Aim: We propose to assess the reliability of SO2 levels retrieved from spectral fitting by measuring the similarity of OA spectra to the fitted blood absorption spectra.
Approach: We introduce a metric that quantifies the trends of blood spectra by assigning a pair of spectral slopes to each spectrum. The applicability of the metric is illustrated with in vivo measurements on a human forearm.
Results: We show that physiologically sound SO2 values do not necessarily imply a successful spectral correction and demonstrate how the metric can be used to distinguish SO2 values that are trustworthy from unreliable ones.
Conclusions: The metric is independent of the methods used for the OA data acquisition, image reconstruction, and spectral correction, thus it can be readily combined with existing approaches, in order to monitor the accuracy of quantitative OA imaging.
KEYWORDS: Ultrasonography, Photoacoustic imaging, Tissue optics, Photoacoustic spectroscopy, Skin, Blood vessels, Bone, In vivo imaging, Deep tissue imaging, Real time imaging, Reflection, Tissues, Acoustics, Signal detection
Reflection artifacts caused by acoustic inhomogeneities are a main challenge to deep-tissue photoacoustic imaging. Photoacoustic transients generated by the skin surface and superficial vasculature will propagate into the tissue and reflect back from echogenic structures to generate reflection artifacts. These artifacts can cause problems in image interpretation and limit imaging depth. In its basic version, PAFUSion mimics the inward travelling wave-field from blood vessel-like PA sources by applying focused ultrasound pulses, and thus provides a way to identify reflection artifacts. In this work, we demonstrate reflection artifact correction in addition to identification, towards obtaining an artifact-free photoacoustic image. In view of clinical applications, we implemented an improved version of PAFUSion in which photoacoustic data is backpropagated to imitate the inward travelling wave-field and thus the reflection artifacts of a more arbitrary distribution of PA sources that also includes the skin melanin layer. The backpropagation is performed in a synthetic way based on the pulse-echo acquisitions after transmission on each single element of the transducer array. We present a phantom experiment and initial in vivo measurements on human volunteers where we demonstrate significant reflection artifact reduction using our technique. The results provide a direct confirmation that reflection artifacts are prominent in clinical epi-photoacoustic imaging, and that PAFUSion can reduce these artifacts significantly to improve the deep-tissue photoacoustic imaging.
In this study we show that the spectral distortion of OA signals, caused by wavelength-dependent optical attenuation inside the bulk tissue, can be corrected based on OA imaging, when using multiple-irradiation sensing. The tissue is modeled as a strongly scattering background, in which a discrete number of blood vessels, characterized by a higher absorption than the background, are sparsely distributed. OA signals generated by these vessels, which serve as intrinsic “fluence detectors”, are recorded as a function of irradiation position. In order to account for realistic situations, we have developed a semi-empirical light diffusion model that is fitted to the recorded signals, so as to determine the background’s optical effective attenuation coefficient for arbitrarily shaped tissues. The experimental validation of this model was performed on tissue-mimicking phantoms. The results demonstrate a successful correction of the measured OA spectrum of the embedded vessel-like inclusions, in the presence of lateral geometrical boundaries and when vessel-like absorbing structures influence the light propagation.
Optoacoustic (OA) imaging in combination with diagnostic pulse-echo ultrasound is most flexibly implemented with irradiation optics and acoustic probe integrated in epi-style in a combined probe. Unfortunately, clinical epi-OA imaging depth is typically limited to one centimetre owing to clutter signals that originates from the site of tissue irradiation. In past years we have developed displacement-compensated averaging (DCA) for clutter reduction, based on the clutter decorrelation that occurs when palpating the tissue using the ultrasound probe. This method has now been implemented on a research ultrasound system for real time scanning with freehand guidance of the linear probe. Volunteer results confirm that clutter is significant in clinical OA imaging, and that DCA significantly improves image contrast as compared to conventional averaging. Clutter reduction is therefore a basic requirement for a successful combination of OA imaging with pulse-echo ultrasound.
Sound speed as a diagnostic marker for various diseases of human tissue has been of interest for a while. Up to now, mostly transmission ultrasound computed tomography (UCT) was able to detect spatially resolved sound speed, and its promise as a diagnostic tool has been demonstrated. However, UCT is limited to acoustically transparent samples such as the breast. We present a novel technique where spatially resolved detection of sound speed can be achieved using conventional pulse-echo equipment in reflection mode. For this purpose, pulse-echo images are acquired under various transmit beam directions and a two-dimensional map of the sound speed is reconstructed from the changing phase of local echoes using a direct reconstruction method. Phantom results demonstrate that a high spatial resolution (1 mm) and contrast (0.5 % of average sound speed) can be achieved suitable for diagnostic purposes. In comparison to previous reflection-mode based methods, CUTE works also in a situation with only diffuse echoes, and its direct reconstruction algorithm enables real-time application. This makes it suitable as an addition to conventional clinical ultrasound where it has the potential to benefit diagnosis in a multimodal approach. In addition, knowledge of the spatial distribution of sound speed allows full aberration correction and thus improved spatial resolution and contrast of conventional B-mode ultrasound.
Optoacoustic (OA) imaging will experience broadest clinical application if implemented in epi-style with the irradiation optics and the acoustic probe integrated in a single probe. This will allow most flexible imaging of the human body in a combined system together with echo ultrasound (US). In such a multimodal combination, the OA signal could provide functional information within the anatomical context shown in the US image, similar to what is already done with colour flow imaging. Up to date, successful deep epi-OA imaging was difficult to achieve, owing to clutter and acoustic aberrations. Clutter signals arise from strong optical absorption in the region of tissue irradiation and strongly reduce contrast and imaging depth. Acoustic aberrations are caused by the inhomogeneous speed of sound and degrade the spatial resolution of deep tissue structures, further reducing contrast and thus imaging depth. In past years we have developed displacement-compensated averaging (DCA) for clutter reduction based on the clutter decorrelation that occurs when palpating the tissue using the ultrasound probe. We have now implemented real-time DCA on a research ultrasound system to evaluate its clutter reduction performance in freehand scanning of human volunteers. Our results confirm that DCA significantly improves image contrast and imaging depth, making clutter reduction a basic requirement for a clinically successful combination of epi-OA and US imaging. In addition we propose a novel technique which allows automatic full aberration correction of OA images, based on measuring the effect of aberration spatially resolved using echo US. Phantom results demonstrate that this technique allows spatially invariant diffraction-limited resolution in presence of a strong aberrator.
In a multi-modal combination of optoacoustic (OA) and pulse-echo ultrasound (US) imaging, epi-mode irradiation with the irradiation optics integrated with the acoustic probe has the advantage of flexible clinical application on any part of the body that is already accessible to US. In epi-mode strong clutter limits the OA imaging depth to often around one centimetre. We investigated clutter in automated scanning of volunteer forearms using a real-time combined OA and US system. The results agree well with our theory that clutter arises from strong optical absorption at the location of tissue illumination. As a consequence, we show that an intermediate separation distance between imaging plane and irradiation region leads to superior OA image contrast compared to an irradiation close to the imaging plane.
KEYWORDS: Blood vessels, Transducers, Acoustics, Tissues, In vivo imaging, Tissue optics, Signal detection, Imaging systems, Absorption, 3D image processing
For clinical optoacoustic imaging, linear probes are preferably used because they allow versatile imaging of the human body with real-time display and free-hand probe guidance. The two-dimensional (2-D) optoacoustic image obtained with this type of probe is generally interpreted as a 2-D cross-section of the tissue just as is common in echo ultrasound. We demonstrate in three-dimensional simulations, phantom experiments, and in vivo mouse experiments that for vascular imaging this interpretation is often inaccurate. The cylindrical blood vessels emit anisotropic acoustic transients, which can be sensitively detected only if the direction of acoustic radiation coincides with the probe aperture. Our results reveal for this reason that the signal amplitude of different blood vessels may differ even if the vessels have the same diameter and initial pressure distribution but different orientation relative to the imaging plane. This has important implications for the image interpretation, for the probe guidance technique, and especially in cases when a quantitative reconstruction of the optical tissue properties is required.
Photoacoustic imaging, based on ultrasound detected after laser irradiation, is an extension to diagnostic ultrasound for imaging the vasculature, blood oxygenation and the uptake of optical contrast media with promise for cancer diagnosis. For versatile scanning, the irradiation optics is preferably combined with the acoustic probe in an epi-style arrangement avoiding acoustically dense tissue in the acoustic propagation path from tissue irradiation to acoustic detection. Unfortunately epiphotoacoustic imaging suffers from strong clutter, arising from optical absorption in tissue outside the image plane, and from acoustic backscattering. This limits the imaging depth for useful photoacoustic image contrast to typically less than one centimeter. Deformation-compensated averaging (DCA), which takes advantage of clutter decorrelation induced by palpating the tissue with the imaging probe, has previously been proposed for clutter reduction. We demonstrate for the first time that DCA results in reduced clutter in real-time freehand clinical epiphotoacoustic imaging. For this purpose, combined photoacoustic and pulse-echo imaging at 10-Hz frame rate was implemented on a commercial scanner, allowing for ultrasound-based motion tracking inherently coregistered with photoacoustic frames. Results from the forearm and the neck confirm that contrast is improved and imaging depth increased by DCA.
Clinical photoacoustic (PA) imaging relies on illuminating objects at depth. To do this, it is important to optimise the illumination geometry with respect to the sensitivity pattern of the acoustic receiver, taking optical scattering into account. The three-dimensional point spread function (3D PSF) measured at various depths as a function of the optimisation variables, is being explored to determine its usefulness for this purpose. The 3D PSF of a reflection mode photoacoustic scanner was measured by acquiring a series of PA images of the tip of a 0.25mm radius graphite rod placed at a depth of 2 cm, by translating the photoacoustic linear array transducer and illumination optics in the elevational direction. This was done for a series of angles and separations of the fibre optic illuminators, for a background medium of 1% intralipid, which simulates, to first order, the optical scattering that would be experienced in tissue. The background noise was found to be influenced by the illumination geometry, and may have been associated with PA clutter generated by absorption in the background medium. The angle of illumination and distance separating fibre optic illuminators were found to be weakly optimum at around 76 degrees and 15.5mm respectively, where the PSF amplitude passed through a weak maximum. As expected, the shape of the 3D PSF was found to be independent of illumination geometry. However, the combination of using the tip of a graphite rod as a point object, and plotting the 3D PSF as a means of locating the peak signal, appears to be a successful method of studying the effect of illumination variables on signal strength. Ultimately when complete, this optimisation should enable the clarity images at the depth of interest to be maximised.
For real-time optoacoustic imaging of the human body, a linear array transducer and reflection mode optical
irradiation is usually preferred. Such a setup, however, results in significant image background, which prevents
imaging structures at the ultimate depth limited only by the signal noise level. Therefore we previously
proposed a method for image background reduction, based on displacement-compensated averaging (DCA) of
image series obtained when the tissue sample under investigation is gradually deformed. Optoacoustic signals
and background signals are differently affected by the deformation and can thus be distinguished. The proposed
method has now been applied to imaging artificial tumors embedded inside breast phantoms. Optoacoustic
images are acquired alternately with pulse-echo images using a combined optoacoustic/ echo-ultrasound device.
Tissue deformation is accessed via speckle tracking in pulse echo images, and optoacoustic images are
compensated for the local tissue displacement. In that way optoacoustic sources are highly correlated between
subsequent images, while background is decorrelated and can therefore be reduced by averaging. We show that
breast image contrast is strongly improved and detectability of embedded tumors significantly increased, using
the DCA method.
For real-time optoacoustic imaging of the human body, a linear array transducer and reflection mode optical irradiation is preferably used. Experimental outcomes however revealed that such a setup results in significant image background, which prevents imaging structures at the ultimate depth limited only by the optical attenuation of the irradiating light and the signal noise level. Various sources of image background, such as bulk tissue absorption, reconstruction artifacts, and backscattered ultrasound, could be identified. To overcome these limitations, we developed a novel method that results in significantly reduced background and increased imaging depth. For this purpose, we acquire, in parallel, a series of optoacoustic and echo-ultrasound images while the tissue sample is gradually deformed by an externally applied force. Optoacoustic signals and background signals are differently affected by the deformation and can thus be distinguished by image processing. This method takes advantage of a combined optoacoustic/echo-ultrasound device and has a strong potential for improving real-time optoacoustic imaging of deep tissue structures.
Optoacoustic (OA) imaging allows optical absorption contrast to be visualised using thermoelastically generated
ultrasound. To date, optoacoustic theory has been applied to homogeneously absorbing tissue models that may describe,
for example, large vessels filled with blood, where the whole target will act as a coherent source of sound. Here we
describe a new model in which the optical absorbers are distributed inhomogeneously, as appropriate to describe
microvasculature, or perhaps the distribution of molecularly targeted OA contrast agents inside a tumour. The degree of
coherence over the resulting distributed acoustic source is influenced by parameters that describe the scale of the
inhomogeneity, such as the sizes of the absorbers and the distances between them. To investigate the influence of these
parameters on OA image appearance, phantoms with homogeneously and imhomogeneously absorbing regions were
built and imaged. Simulations of the same situation were conducted using a time domain acoustic propagation method.
Both simulations and experiments showed that introducing inhomogeneity of absorption produces more complete images
of macroscopic targets than are obtained with a homogeneous absorption. Image improvement and target detectability
were found to reach a maximum at an intermediate value of the length-scale of the inhomogeneity that was similar to the
axial resolution of the acoustic receiver employed. As the scale of inhomogeneity became finer than this the target's
detectability and appearance began to revert to that for homogeneous absorption. Further understanding of this topic is
believed to be important for optimising the design of clinical optoacoustic imaging systems.
For real-time optoacoustic imaging of the human body, a linear array transducer and reflection mode optical
irradiation is preferably used. Experimental outcomes however revealed that such a setup results in significant
image background, which prevents imaging structures at the ultimate depth limited only by optical attenuation
and the signal noise level. Various sources of image background such as bulk tissue absorption, reconstruction
artifacts, and backscattered ultrasound could be identified. We therefore developed a novel method which
results in significantly reduced background and increased imaging depth. For this purpose, we acquire in
parallel a series of optoacoustic and echo-ultrasound images while the tissue sample is gradually deformed by
an externally applied force. Optoacoustic signals and background signals are differently affected by the
deformation and can thus be distinguished by image processing. This method takes advantage of a combined
optoacoustic/echo-ultrasound device and has a strong potential for improving real-time optoacoustic imaging of
deep tissue structures.
Recently, the influence of acoustic inhomogeneities on optoacoustic images has gained wide attention in
biomedical optoacoustics. Resolution and accuracy of optoacoustic images was found to be improved when a
model taking inhomogeneous speed of sound into account was included into the reconstruction algorithm.
However, scattering of optoacoustic transients on inhomogeneities of the acoustic impedance was not yet paid
much attention to. We show that the same inhomogeneities which are responsible for the contrast in echo
ultrasound imaging reduce the contrast in optoacoustic imaging. Absorption of light below the tissue surface
results in optoacoustic transients which propagate into the tissue and get backscattered from acoustic
inhomogeneities. The echoes interfere with the direct optoacoustic signals and lead to a strong background if
the optoacoustic image alone is reconstructed. We show that simultaneous reconstruction of an optoacoustic and
an echo image allows to reduce the echo background in the optoacoustic image. For this purpose, we iteratively
apply optoacoustic and echo ultrasound Fourier algorithms, together with a special regularization technique.
Simulations and experimental results show the validity of the algorithm, and demonstrate the impact of this new
method.
Optoacoustic images from rather large tissue samples, such as the human extremities, the breast, or large organs,
are preferably obtained in reflection mode. In the past it has been assumed that irradiating the tissue directly
below or even better through an acoustic receiver results in an optimum image contrast. Our theoretical and
experimental results however show that when a linear array transducer is used, this is not always true. The
optimum location of irradiation depends on the depth of the tissue structures to be imaged and on various sources
of image background, namely random optical absorption in the bulk tissue surrounding the region of interest,
reconstruction artifacts, and acoustic backscattering. It turns out that the influence of absorption in the bulk
tissue becomes minimal when irradiating close to the transducer aperture, the opposite however is the case for
image artefact background. Its influence becomes minimal if the fluence in the tissue is homogeneously
distributed obtained for an irradiation far away from the transducer. Echo background, which results from
backscattered optoacoustic transients, additionally limits the imaging depth in reflection mode optoacoustic
imaging. Therefore, the irradiation geometry when using a linear array transducer has to be adapted to the depth
of the imaged structures.
An optoacoustic detection method suitable for depth profiling of optical absorption of layered or continuously varying tissue structures is presented. Detection of thermoelastically induced pressure transients allows reconstruction of optical properties of the sample to a depth of several millimeters with a spatial resolution of 24 µm. Acoustic detection is performed using a specially designed piezoelectric transducer, which is transparent for optical radiation. Thus, ultrasonic signals can be recorded at the same position the tissue is illuminated. Because the optoacoustical sound source is placed in the pulsed-acoustic near field of the pressure sensor, signal distortions commonly associated with acoustical diffraction are eliminated. Therefore, the acoustic signals mimic exactly the depth profile of the absorbed energy. This is illustrated by imaging the absorption profile of a two-layered sample with different absorption coefficients, and of a dye distribution while diffusing into a gelatin phantom.
A classical medical ultrasound system was combined with a pulsed laser source to allow laser-induced ultrasound imaging (optoacoustics). Classical ultrasound is based on reflection and scattering of an incident acoustic pulse at internal tissue structures. Laser-induced ultrasound is generated in situ by heating optical absorbing structures, such as blood vessels, with a 5 ns laser pulse (few degrees or fraction of degree), which generates pressure transients. Laser-induced ultrasound probes optical properties and therefore provides much higher contrast and complementary information compared to classical ultrasound. An ultrasound array transducer in combination with a commercial medical imaging system was used to record acoustic transients of both methods. Veins and arteries in a human forearm were identified in vivo using classical color doppler and oxygenation dependent optical absorption at 660 nm and 1064 nm laser wavelength. Safety limits of both methods were explored. Laser-induced ultrasound seems well suited to improve classical ultrasound imaging of subcutaneous regions.
In this paper we present the architecture of a multimedia ISDN-PC, providing advanced compression/decompression video as well as video manipulation facilities at affordable costs. The system provides sophisticated tools for PC-based video presentation and video communication. The modular and flexible architecture consists of hardware modules for video compression and real-time video manipulation.
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