The space-based multi-band astronomical variable objects monitor (SVOM) is a Chinese–French mission due to be launched in 2023. It is composed of four space borne instruments: ECLAIRs, for detecting x-ray and gamma-ray transients; GRM, a gamma-ray spectrometer; VT, a visible telescope and the Microchannel X-ray Telescope (MXT). The MXT’s main goal is to precisely localize, and spectrally characterize x-ray afterglows of gamma-ray bursts. The MXT is a narrow-field-optimised lobster eye x-ray focusing telescope comprising an array of 25 square micro pore optics (MPOs), with a detector-limited field of view of ∼1 square degree, working in the energy band 0.2-10 keV. The SVOM flight model (FM) MXT optic (MOP) was designed, built and initially tested at the University of Leicester and a full calibration of the MOP was completed at the PANTER facility (MPE). It was then integrated in to the full proto flight model (PFM) MXT instrument before it returned to PANTER for the PFM MXT’s full calibration. We present the optic performance as part of the full FM MXT instrument calibration. The response of the telescope was studied at 11 energies from C-K (0.28 keV) to Ge-K (9.89 keV), including measurements of the effective area and the PSF size and shape. The focal length of the instrument was determined and details of the modelling and analysis used to predict the performance are presented. The measurements demonstrate that the actual effective area and PSF are in good agreement with the modelling.
The mirror modules composing Athena’s X-ray optics are made with the Silicon Pore Optics (SPO) technology.
SPO is produced as stacks of 38 mirror plates, which are paired to form X-ray Optics Units (XOUs) following a
modified Wolter I geometry. In the current design, a mirror module is composed of two confocal XOUs glued in
between a pair of brackets that freeze the configuration and provide interfaces to the mirror structure. Mirror
modules are assembled at the XPBF2 beamline of PTB at the synchrotron radiation facility BESSY II, using
dedicated jigs. In this paper we present the latest developments regarding the assembly of confocal mirror
modules for Athena with an emphasis on alignment tolerances and gluing accuracy.
The Silicon Pore Optics (SPO) technology has been established as a new type of X-ray optics and will enable future X-ray observatories such as Athena and Arcus. SPO is being developed at cosine Research B.V. together with the European Space Agency (ESA) and academic as well as industrial partners. For Athena, about 150,000 mirror plates are required. With the technology spin-in from the semiconductor industry, mass production processes can be employed to manufacture rectangular SPO mirror plates in high quality, large quantity and at low cost. Over the last years, several aspects of the SPO mirror plates have been reviewed and undergone further developments in terms of effective area, intrinsic behavior of the mirror plates and mass production capability. The paper will provide an overview of most recent SPO plate designs, mirror plate production status and plan forward including reflective coating process as well as mass production developments.
Athena, the largest space-based x-ray telescope to be flown by the European Space Agency, uses a new modular technology to assemble its 2.5 m diameter lens. The lens will consist of several hundreds of smaller x-ray lenslets, called mirror modules, which each consist of up to 76 stacked mirror pairs. Those mirror modules are arranged in circles in a large optics structure and will focus x-ray photons with an energy of 0.5 to 10 keV at a distance of 12 m onto the detectors of Athena. The point-spread function (PSF) of the optic shall achieve a half-energy width (HEW) of 5” at an energy of 1 keV, with an effective area of about 1.4 m2, corresponding to several hundred m2 of super-polished mirrors with a roughness of about 0.3 nm and a thickness of down to 110 µm. This paper will present the status of the technology and of the mass production capabilities, show latest performance results and discuss the next steps in the development.
The PANTER X-ray test facility of the Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics (MPE) has been testing and calibrating optics from various space missions world-wide for more than 40 years. Recently, PANTER measured the performance of the latest x-ray optic technologies of SVOM, Einstein Probe and Athena. Towards accelerating calibrations, we aim to predict the behavior of optics when introduced into vacuum. The optics are modeled with computer aided design (CAD) and ray-traced with Zemax' non-sequential mode. This allows tracing the point spread function (PSF) on the detector plane from complex X-ray optics, including Wolter-type optics, Parabolic mirror, Hybrid KirkPatrick Baez and Lobster Eye optics. We compare PANTER experiments to equivalent simulation setups, including a focal scan. We find good agreement between simulations and experiments in terms of PSF, and location of the focal plane. Zemax ray tracing appears to be a powerful and flexible tool to understand and predict calibration experiments at PANTER.
The ATHENA (Advanced Telescope for High ENergy Astrophysics) mission studies and technology preparation are continuing to progress. The optics for this future space observatory is based on the Silicon Pore Optics (SPO), and is being evolved in a joint effort by industry, research institutions and ESA. The SPO technology uses the superb properties of monocrystalline Silicon, and spins in technologies developed for the semiconductor industry, benefiting from excellent materials, processes and equipment. In a holistic approach the technical and programmatic challenges of the ATHENA optics are being addressed simultaneously. A comprehensive Technology Development Plan (TDP) was defined and is being implemented to develop this novel X-ray optics technology. The performance, environmental compatibility and serial automated production and testing are being addressed in parallel, aiming at the demonstration of the required technology readiness for the Athena Mission Adopt ion Review (MAR) expected in 2022.
The European Space Agency ATHENA mission is an x-ray observatory that will study the formation of galaxy clusters and the growth of black holes within the energy range of 0.5 to 10 keV. Due for launch in early 2030s, ATHENA will use silicon pore optic (SPO) mirror modules to create the x-ray mirror. The first confocal SPO mirror module (MM) was entered into a preliminary environmental test program for the ATHENA mission. The objective of this program was to determine whether particulate contamination causes loss of effective area for silicon pore optics. The confocal MM under test was manufactured by cosine measurement systems and first tested at MPE’s PANTER x-ray test facility in July 2019. After this campaign, it was contaminated with a total of 2000 ppm in two 1000-ppm-level contamination periods. After each 1000-ppm contamination step, x-ray measurements were made to determine the effective area. The pre- and post-contamination effective area measurements, and the contamination of the optic, were carried out at the PANTER facility. The paper provides an overview of the contamination testing carried out at PANTER, and the corresponding results for each contamination level. We find no measurable degradation in effective area on a 5% level. We also look into the possibilities and limitations for the determination of the effective area within our facility. In future campaigns we plan to reach a 2% accuracy for the determination of the effective area for similar type optics.
The Athena mission, under study and preparation by ESA as its second Large-class science mission, requires the largest X-ray optics ever flown, building on a novel optics technology based on mono crystalline silicon. Referred to as Silicon Pore Optics technology (SPO), the optics is highly modular and benefits from technology spin-in from the semiconductor industry. The telescope aperture of about 2.5 meters is populated by around 700 mirror modules, accurately co-aligned to produce a common focus. The development of the SPO technology is a joint effort by European industrial and research entities, working together to address the challenges to demonstrate the imaging performance, robustness and efficient series production of the Athena optics. A technology development plan was established and is being regularly updated to reflect the latest developments, and is fully funded by the ESA technology development programmes. An industrial consortium was formed to ensure coherence of the individual technology development activities. The SPO technology uses precision machined mirror plates produced using the latest generation top quality 12 inch silicon wafers, which are assembled into rugged stacks. The surfaces of the mirror plates and the integral support structure is such, that no glue is required to join the individual mirror plates. Once accurately aligned with respect to each other, the surfaces of the mirror plates merge in a physical bonding process. The resultant SPO mirror modules are therefore very accurate and stable and can sustain the harsh conditions encountered during launch and are able to tolerate the space environment expected during operations. The accommodation of the Athena telescope is also innovative, relying on a hexapod mechanism to align the optics to the selected detector instruments located in the focal plane. System studies are complemented by dedicated technology development activities to demonstrate the capabilities before the adoption of the Athena mission.
Athena, the largest space-based x-ray telescope to be flown by the European Space Agency, uses a revolutionary new modular technology to assemble its 2.6 m diameter lens. The lens will consist of several hundreds of smaller x-ray lenslets, called mirror modules, which each consist of about 70 mirror pairs. Those mirror modules are arranged in circles in a large optics structure and will focus x-ray photons with an energy of 0.5 to 10 keV at a distance of 12 m onto the detectors of Athena. The point-spread function (PSF) of the optic shall achieve a half-energy width (HEW) of 5” at an energy of 1 keV, with an effective area of about 1.4 m2, corresponding to several hundred m2 of super-polished mirrors with a roughness of about 0.3 nm and a thickness of only 150 µm. Silicon Pore Optics (SPO), using the highest grade double-side polished 300 mm wafers commercially available, have been invented to enable such telescopes. SPO allows the cost-effective production of high-resolution, large area, x-ray optics, by using all the advantages that mono-crystalline silicon and the mass production processes of the semi-conductor industry provide. SPO has also shown to be a versatile technology that can be further developed for gamma-ray optics, medical applications and for material research. This paper will present the status of the technology and of the mass production capabilities, show latest performance results and discuss the next steps in the development.
The European Space Agency ATHENA mission is an x-ray observatory that will study the formation of galaxy clusters and the growth of black holes. Due for launch in early 2030s, with adoption planned for 2021, ATHENA will use silicon pore optic mirror modules to create a 2.6 m diameter x-ray mirror. The PANTER x-ray test facility has over 40 years of experience in testing and calibrating x-ray optics. PANTER plays a key part in testing developments of silicon pore optics, manufactured by Cosine Measurement Systems, for the ATHENA mission. This year, as part of these developments, PANTER has measured an x-ray optic unit comprising two mandrels, manufactured by Zeiss. This optic was produced as a standard against which the performance of both silicon pore optics and the PANTER facility setup for silicon pore optics was measured. The first confocal mirror module measured at PANTER was entered into an environmental program, to determine whether particulate contamination causes loss of effective area. The contamination and the pre- and post-contamination effective area measurements were carried out at PANTER. The paper will provide an overview of the most recent testing carried out at PANTER, and the performance of the ATHENA optics tested to date.
High-resolution (R = λ/Δλ >2000) x-ray absorption and emission line spectroscopy in the soft x-ray band is a crucial diagnostic for the exploration of the properties of ubiquitous warm and hot plasmas and their dynamics in the cosmic web, galaxy clusters, galaxy halos, intragalactic space, and star atmospheres. Soft x-ray grating spectroscopy with R > 10,000 has been demonstrated with critical-angle transmission (CAT) gratings. CAT gratings combine the relaxed alignment and temperature tolerances and low mass of transmission gratings with high diffraction efficiency blazed in high orders. They are an enabling technology for the proposed Arcus grating explorer and were selected for the Lynx design reference mission grating spectrometer instrument. Both Arcus and Lynx require the manufacture of hundreds to perhaps ≈ 2000 large-area CAT gratings. We are developing new patterning and fabrication process sequences that are conducive to large-format volume processing on stateof-the-art 200 mm wafer tools. Recent x-ray tests on 200 nm-period gratings patterned using e-beam-written masks and 4x projection lithography in conjunction with silicon pore focusing optics demonstrated R ≈ 104 at 1.49 keV. Extending the grating depth from 4 μm to 6 μm is predicted to lead to significant improvements in diffraction efficiency and is part of our current efforts using a combination of deep reactive-ion etching and wet etching in KOH solution. We describe our recent progress in grating fabrication and report our latest diffraction efficiency and modeling results.
The Space-based multi-band astronomical Variable Objects Monitor (SVOM) is a Chinese – French satellite mission due to be launched in the summer of 2022. It is composed of four instruments: ECLAIRs, for detecting X-ray and gamma-ray transients (4-250 keV); GRM, a gamma-ray spectrometer (15 keV-5 MeV); VT, a visible telescope and the Microchannel X-ray Telescope (MXT). The MXT’s main goal is to precisely localize, and spectrally characterize X-ray afterglows of Gamma-Ray Bursts. The MXT is a narrow-field-optimised lobster eye X-ray focusing telescope comprising an array of 25 square Micro Pore Optics (MPOs), with a detectorlimited field of view of ∼1 square degree, working in the energy band 0.2-10 keV. The SVOM qualification model (QM) MXT optic (MOP) was designed and built at the University of Leicester, and is the first complete, lobster eye optic to be X-ray tested. We present results from the PANTER facility (MPE), where a full calibration of the QM MOP was carried out. The response of the optic was studied at seven energies from C-K to Cu-K, and the effective area at multiple off-axis angles at each energy was measured. The focal length of the MOP was confirmed and the PSF was studied on and off-axis. In addition, we present details of the modelling and analysis, which was used to calculate the results from the test campaign. The effective area and PSF are in good agreement with the modelling, indicating that the optic is performing as expected.
The Einstein Probe mission, due to launch in late 2022, will study time-domain astrophysics and monitor variable objects. It aims to observe x-ray counterparts of gravitational wave sources and high-redshift gamma ray bursts. Developed and built by the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Einstein Probe will use two types of telescope: the WideField X-ray Telescope (WXT) and the Follow-Up X-ray Telescope (FXT). The FXT will perform follow-up observations of sources discovered by the WXT, and will observe in the energy range of 0.5 to 8 keV. The performance aim of the FXT – the point spread function half-energy width (PSF HEW) – is <20 arcseconds (on-axis at 1.49 keV). The Max-Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics (MPE) is producing and integrating the x-ray straylight baffle for the FXT, as well as testing and calibrating the different models of the FXT x-ray optic. Production of the structural-thermal model (STM) for Einstein Probe FXT began in 2019. The STM mirror module, produced by Media Lario, has been tested at MPE’s PANTER x-ray test facility. Following this acceptance test, further x-ray tests have been performed at PANTER after each of the subsequent stages: the mounting of the x-ray baffle, the shock and vibration test, and the thermal cycling test. The x-ray performance of the FXT STM is documented at each stage and the results of each test are presented in this paper.
The European Space Agency (ESA) mission ATHENA is a next generation large X-ray observatory which is slated to be launched in the early 2030s. It will have mirror assembly with 2.6-m diameter and a 12-m focal length that is made up of ~600 Silicon Pore Optic (SPO) mirror modules integrated into mirror assembly support structure. Existing facilities cannot calibrate the such a large mirror assembly in full illumination. To avoid having to make compromises during calibration of the mirror assembly a new long beam X-ray test facility would be required. A study for ESA on a such a new long beam X-ray test facility and the necessary GSE has been performed by a team from MPEs PANTER X-ray test facility. Here we present the current status of the design of a 800-m long and 2.8-m diameter beam line X-ray test facility in Garching, Germany.
Low density overcoatings (mainly based on materials containing Carbon) onto usual high-density coatings (based i.e. on materials like e.g. like Ir, Au or Pt) have been proposed since many years ago in order to enhance the X- ray reflectivity at low energy (between 0.5 and 4 keV) of X-ray astronomical optics. The trick is to make use of the total reflection from the thin low-density material (which does not suffer much the photoelectric absorption) at low X-ray energies; the reflection of photons at higher energies (< 4 keV) occurs thanks to the much denser material under the overcoating. For several future projects, like e.g. ATHENA, LYNX and eXTP, it is foreseen the use of low-density overcoatings that will importantly increase the effective area at low X-ray energies. In this paper we will introduce the use of overcoatings based on materials different from the usual ones considered so far like C, B4C and SiC. In particular, we will discuss about a novel approach based on the use of thin layer of a Carbon-like materials deposited using a dip coating method. A possible combination with an intermediate thin layer of Chromium deposited e.g. via sputtering onto the usual high density material (Ir, Au or Pt) before the application of the Carbon-like material is also considered in the study, because it can further greatly enhance the soft X-ray effective area of future X-ray telescopes.
Silicon Pore Optics (SPO) uses commercially available monocrystalline double-sided super-polished silicon wafers as a basis to produce mirrors that form lightweight and stiff high-resolution x-ray optics. The technology has been invented by cosine and the European Space Agency (ESA) and developed together with scientific and industrial partners to mass production levels. SPO is an enabling element for large space-based x-ray telescopes such as Athena and ARCUS, operating in the 0.2 to 12 keV band, with angular resolution requirements up to 5 arc seconds. SPO has also shown to be a versatile technology that can be further developed for gamma-ray optics, medical applications and for material research. This paper will summarise the status of the technology and of the mass production capabilities, show latest performance results and discuss the next steps in the development.
Studying astronomical objects in the X-ray regime, iridium-based layer systems are highly effective reflective materials for telescopes mirrors. Aschaffenburg University and the Czech Technical University in Prague jointly developed stress compensated chromium-iridium coatings. To overcome the disturbing reflectivity reduction of the iridium absorption edge around 2 keV photon energy and improve general reflectivity at lower incident energies, thin overcoat layers of chromium have been applied in addition. Corresponding measurements at several X-ray lines have been performed on these samples at the PANTER test facility of the Max-Planck Institute for extraterrestrial Physics. A part of the experimental results and their comparison with theoretical simulations are presented in this contribution.
The PANTER X-ray test facility of the Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics (MPE) has over 40 years of heritage in testing and calibrating x-ray optics. Having contributed to missions such as XMM-Newton, Chandra, and eROSITA, the facility measures the performance of x-ray optic technologies that will enable future x-ray telescopes to be realised. Over the last year, PANTER has been testing the latest developments in silicon pore optics for ESA’s ATHENA mission, as well as full-shell eROSITA-like optics for the CAS/ESA/MPE Einstein Probe mission. For ATHENA, complete mirror modules for the outer radius of the telescope have been tested. The latest developments in the optics for the mid-radius of the telescope, including the first confocal mirror module, have been measured for performance. The paper will provide an overview of the most recent testing carried out at PANTER, and the alignment and measurement techniques used.
By measuring the centroid of a beam on a detector, one can track the movement of that beam across the detector. By tracking this movement, one can track the object encompassing the detector, for example, a spacecraft. A variety of system-specific performance inhibitors can make this a challenge, requiring a robust calibration method. The goal of this investigation is to model the true beam position of the instrument in terms of the measured beam position. For this, a mathematical model is created that interpolates and corrects the measured beam position using precollected position data—a “calibration model.” The real-world scenario for this investigation is the flight-representative model of the fine lateral and longitudinal sensor (FLLS) instrument, built by Neptec Design Group and Neptec UK for the European Space Agency mission PROBA-3. Performance inhibitors for FLLS are cropping of the beam, imperfect optics, and a varying distance the beam has traveled (up to 250 m). Using bivariate spline interpolation for the FLLS calibration model gives the best performance, achieving a measurement accuracy well within the mission requirement of <300 μm.
PROBA-3 is a European Space Agency (ESA) mission due to launch in 2020. The aim of the mission is two-fold: to study the solar corona, and to demonstrate formation flying technology. Two satellites will fly in formation, 150 m apart, to form a coronagraph instrument. The relative displacement between the two satellites must be known to within 300 μm to produce accurate coronagraph data. The instrument that will provide this high-accuracy measurement is FLLS – the Fine Lateral and Longitudinal Sensor.
Built by Neptec UK and Neptec Design Group, FLLS uses a retro-reflected laser beam to monitor the position of one satellite with respect to the other. Phase measurements of the reflected signal are used to compute the longitudinal displacement between the two satellites. The lateral displacement is measured from the position of the returning beam on a CMOS sensor.
FLLS is currently in preliminary testing, in collaboration with Surrey Space Centre. To support the testing, the performance of the lateral system of FLLS has been modelled. A computational model of the full optical system has been produced, and several calibration routines have been tested on the modelled beam images. The results of these routines have enabled predicted preliminary performance analysis of the FLLS instrument.
The paper and presentation will provide an overview of the method, model, and results of the preliminary performance modelling of FLLS.
Increasingly, binocular disparity has become commonplace in telepresence systems despite the additional cost of its provision. Experiments comparing performance under monocular and binocular viewing are often cited as justification for its use. Here we question whether this experimental comparison and provide an important set of data which compares performance on a motor task under binocular, monocular and bi-ocular (where both eyes receive the same view) conditions. Binocular cues were found to be particularly important in the control of the transport component. In the binocular conditions peak velocity scaling with object distance was greater than in the other conditions, and in the bi-ocular condition, where the binocular distance cues conflicted with pictorial information, no scaling was evident. For the grasp component, even in the presence of conflicting size and depth information, grip scaling remained equivalent in all conditions. For the transport component at least, binocular cues appear important and the decrease in performance observed in behavioral studies under monocular conditions is not attributable to lack of information in one eye but rather to the lack of binocular depth cues. Therefore in the design of telepresence systems to be used in telemanipulation tasks, the use of stereoscopic display technology seems justified.
Binocular telepresence systems afford the opportunity of increasing the inter-camera distance (ICD) beyond the normal interocular distance (IOD) which magnifies the magnitude of the disparity information. This improves performance in nulling and matching tasks. Here we examine whether telepresent observers can learn to use enhanced disparities to accurately perform tasks requiring the recovery of Euclidean geometry (a shape task). The design comprised three phases: pre-adaptation (ICD equals 6.5 cm), adaptation (ICD equals 3.25 or 13 cm) and post-adaptation (ICD equals 6.5 cm). Telepresent observers were required to adjust the magnitude of a depth interval (specified by binocular disparity) so that it matched a specified 2D interval specified by two lights (set between 5 and 15 cm) in an otherwise blacked-out scene. In the adaptation phase, the ICD/IOD ratio was changed to 0.5 or 2 and observers adjusted the depth interval repeatedly until a performance criterion was reached. Two forms of feedback were given in the adaptation phase: direct, where another light was shown at the correct disparity; and symbolic, where a signed number indicated the magnitude and direction of the error. Observers were clearly affected by ICD/IOD changes but learned the new ratio rapidly under both feedback conditions.
The experiments reported here were designed to address two aims. Th first was to determine the sufficiency of head- generated motion parallax, when present in isolation, for the control of natural prehensile movements. The second was to assess the consequences of providing enhanced parallax information for prehension. Enhanced parallax was created by changing the spatial extend of the movement of a camera relative to the extend of the teleoperator's head movements. The gain ranged from 0.5 to 4. The scene was viewed for 2 secs before reaches were made in open-loop conditions. Results showed clearly that information from motion parallax is sufficient to support reliable and accurate motor movements. The enhanced information, led to predictable distortions in perceived size and distance and corresponding alterations in the transport and grip components. The results suggest that the provision of parallax information is beneficial for tasks requiring the recovery of metric depth information. However, if enhanced parallax is used, which facilitates performance in a range of perceptual tasks, re-calibration of the relative motion information is necessary to prevent size/distance distortions.
The control of inter-camera distance (ICD) can be used to change the range of binocular disparities available from a visual scene viewed remotely. Binocular disparity is considered pre-eminent in the control of reaching behavior. One reason for this is that once suitably scaled it can specify metrical depth relationships within a scene. Such information is necessary in order to plan the transport and grasped phase of a reaching movement. However whether an observer can take advantage of enhanced disparities to control reaching is unknown. Here we examine the effects of manipulating ICD on reaching movements with ICDs ranging from 6.5cm to 26cm. Typically sized, real world objects were placed in a scene and reaching performance was assessed. An experimental sequence consisted of three blocks. The first and last block used a normal ICD/IOD of 6.5cm whereas the middle block used an increased ICD. Larger than normal ICD were found to disrupt reaching performance, with slower peak velocities and smaller grip apertures being observed. This was more pronounced for unfamiliar objects. Little evidence for learning was found.
We report three experiments that explore the effect of enhanced binocular information on a range of perceptual judgements made under telepresence. Enhanced disparity is potentially useful as it would extend the range over which disparities are detectable, but it is not known whether, or for what tasks, we can use the enhanced information. Subjects positioned a 'mobile' within a scene viewed, via remote cameras, on a monitor. The tasks differed in the minimum geometry required to perform them, and we compared performance under monocular, normal binocular, and enhanced binocular conditions. Enhanced disparity improved performance on a 'nulling' task ; had no effect on a distance matching task; or on a shape task. We conclude that enhanced disparity is potentially useful for limited specialist tasks, but is unlikely to be useful in general. It remains possible that with training its usefulness could be extended.
The effect of different depth cues presented through a head mounted display (HMD) in a dark (no pictorial cue) environment was investigated. In four experiments the relative effects of binocular disparity, motion parallax, and a combination of the two, were assessed for four tasks at two viewing distances. These tasks (which varied in the minimum amount of information they required) were a nulling task (based on the Howard-Dolman stereo test), setting a triangle to be equilateral, matching two triangles at different depths and estimating absolute distance. Performance within the tasks varied considerably with the nulling task best. Performance in the other tasks indicates a difference at different viewing conditions which may be due to a failure in the assessment of absolute viewing distance. Although results from the final task indicate that observers can use this information under certain circumstances. It is argued that these results are task specific and may reflect limitations in the viewing equipment. Although there was some variation between different cue types they appear to be largely interchangeable within the tasks. This questions whether there is always a need to present both disparity and motion cues in telepresence systems.
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