Authors would like to raise a discussion about image intensity for surface exposure, off course, including optical
lithography. As a springboard for the discussion, a novel definition of image "intensity", which expresses local
irradiance associating with optical image, is proposed. An experimental result, which strongly supports the proposed
"intensity", is also obtained.
To describe exposure dose, energy input for unit area with unit of J/m2, is applied as a measure of this amount. A
phrase of "dose-to-clear" is frequently used to show sensitivity of a resist film. In contrast, conventional image intensity
of optical image is defined as a value, which is proportional to volume energy density associating with image. The value
is described with unit of J/m3. In some papers, it is mentioned that number of photochemical reactions in resist film is
proportional to the volume energy density of electromagnetic filed, that is, conventional image intensity. It seems
unclear what physical value is proper measure of surface exposure.
We considered that, in optical lithography, energy flux is proper value to indicate degree of resist exposure from
experience and some former reports. Then, a novel image "intensity", which expresses local irradiance associating with
optical image, is proposed. The proposed image "intensity" is proportional to surface normal component of Poynting
vector.
~30nm width isolated line is formed with over 300nm DOF by Single Exposure
process of ArF immersion lithography.
Super-Diffraction-Lithography ("SDL") technique, which utilizes fine dark line image formed between a pair of bright
lines in attenuating non-phase-shifting field and which enables formation of very fine isolated line pattern with single
exposure, is applied with ArF immersion lithography. By simulation study, superior performance of "SDL" is exhibited
for ArF immersion lithography. From view point of mask fabrication, it is shown that requirement for mask technology
is not so severe, such that photo mask for "SDL" in hyper NA ArF immersion era can be fabricated with current mask
technology. By experiments with an optimum quadrupole illumination, ~30 nm width isolated line is successfully
printed by single exposure process with over 300nm DOF by a mature 6% transmission EA-PSM. Moreover, device like
pattern with ~35nm line width is well formed with enough large DOF to industrially fabricate devices.
We believe this technique is one of the promising candidates for advanced logic at 32 nm node and beyond.
A novel RET, which enables on-grid sub-50 nm hole pattern formation with ArF immersion lithography, has been
developed. One of the authors has found quasi-iso-focal point image generation at the center of square area of high
transmission embedded attenuating phase shift mask (EA-PSM), where four small openings are laid out at the corners of
the area, utilizing an optimized quadrupole illumination. As an extension of continuous configuration, checker-board
like mask pattern arrangement is created. In the mask, small openings and opaque pads are arranged like as checkerboard,
whose base pitch is around resolution limit of targeted optical system. The mask pattern arrangement is named as
"Checker-Board PSM (CB-PSM)". By eliminating any one opening from "checker-board", very fine point image is
generated at the place. Because four openings around the eliminated one are necessary for the fine imaging
characteristic, minimum distance between the point images is about the double of that for resolution limit. After
simulation study of imaging, experiments are carried out to prove the fine imaging performance utilizing ArF immersion
optics with NA=1.07 and a tri-level resist system. As a result, sub-50nm isolated hole is successfully formed with DOF
larger than 200 nm. Simultaneously, ~ 60 nm semi-dense hole with pitch of 240 nm is printed with over 200 nm DOF.
Moreover, application of conventional mask pattern arrangement, ultimately dense hole of 140nm pitch is well formed.
As a conclusion, we believe that CB-PSM is a promising candidate for hole pattern formation at 32 nm node and beyond.
A novel process of OPC-free on-grid fine random hole pattern formation is developed. Any random hole pattern with
~120nm diameter on 240 nm base grid can be printed by KrF exposure. In this technique, double resist patterning
scheme is adopted. Dense hole pattern is delineated with first resist process. Quadrupole illumination is applied with
embedded attenuating phase shift mask (EA-PSM) in imaging on this step. As is well known, fine dense hole pattern
is formed with very large process latitude. After development of the first resist, hardening of the resist film by Ar ion
implantation is carried out so as not to mix with second resist at second coating. This hardening process is very robust
such that rework in second resist process can be performed with stripping the resist by a solvent. Then, second resist
patterning is carried out. In the second exposure, cross-pole illumination is applied with high transmission EA-PSM.
By this imaging, very fine dark spot image is generated. Resultantly, fine random pillar patterns, which plug an
underlying hole, are formed in the second resist film. Because function of the pillar is plugging a hole, no precise CD
control is required. Moreover, pattern connection between adjacent pillars does not cause any problem. Hence, no
OPC is needed in the pillar formation, regardless of printed size variation of the pillars. Undesired holes in the dense
holes are plugged by the pillars. As a result of the double resist patterning, on-grid random hole pattern is successfully
delineated. Due to the robustness of each patterning process, very high process latitude is achieved. Off course, this
technique can be carried out under any wavelength on regard of imaging. In other aspect, this technique utilizes only
positive-tone resist. Hence, this technique can be applied with leading-edge ArF immersion lithography. As a
conclusion, this technique is a promising candidate of hole pattern formation in 32nm era and beyond.
A novel mask structure for an alternating aperture phase shift mask (Alt-PSM) to cut mask cost is proposed. By a
mask with structure of an embedded attenuating phase shift mask (Atten-PSM), an Alt-PSM for an isolated line
formation can be well fabricated. Fine image quality is confirmed with optical image calculations. Moreover,
concept of this novel mask is proved by a preliminary experiment. In conclusion, this novel mask can replace
conventional Alt-PSM for logic devices, resulting in considerable cut of mask cost.
Recent integrated circuit (IC) manufacturing processes require smaller critical dimension (CD) in order to facilitate the development of exposure tools with a higher numerical aperture (NA) and shorter wavelength. Consequently, the depth of focus (DOF) has considerably decreased, and the DOF currently required for 45-nm node devices is approximately 150 nm. Hence, the contribution of mask flatness to the total DOF increases. Inoue et al. systematically and precisely investigated the influence of mask flatness by using a free-standing plate and chucked plate interferometer. In this study, we fabricated several back side chrome (BSC) masks for focus monitoring, determined the flatness of these masks by an exposure experiment, and compared the flatness with that directly determined by using a free-standing plate interferometer. Thus, we verified the possibility of predicting the mask flatness component on an image plane by using the mask flatness data obtained using the interferometer.
193 nm lithography is one of the most promising technologies for next-generation lithography and is being actively evaluated for making it practicable (1,2). First, we evaluated an immersion lithography tool (engineering evaluation tool (EET)) (3) and a dry lithography tool (S307E) with the same numerical aperture (NA = 0.85), manufactured by Nikon Corporation. As a result, an increase in the depth of focus (DOF) of the EET to 200 nm in comparison with the DOF (110 nm) of the dry exposure tool was confirmed in a 90 nm isolated space pattern. Next, the optical proximity effect (OPE) in this pattern was evaluated. Generally, when an immersion lithography tool is compared with a dry one with the same NA or both the tools, only an increase in the DOF is found. However, we confirmed that the OPE (The OPE of the 90 nm isolated space pattern is defined as the difference in the space width between a dense space and an isolated space.) of the dry exposure tool for the 90 nm isolated space pattern reduced from 33.1 nm to 14.1 nm by immersion lithography. As the effect of the reduction of 19 nm, the OPE reduced to 15.2 nm by the effect of the top coatings (TCs) and to 3.8 nm by the optical characteristics. An impact of about 5 nm on the OPE was confirmed by the process parameters-film thickness and the pre-bake temperature of the TC. In the case that the solvent was replaced with a high boiling point solvent, the impact changed from 5 to 20 nm further, the replacement of the solvent had a considerable impact on the OPE. However, this influence differs considerably according to the kind of resists; further, it was shown that the addition of acid materials and a change in the polymer base resulted in a high impact on the OPE for a certain resist. Thus, it was demonstrated that the selection of TC is very important for the OPE in immersion lithography.
A novel RET, "Super Diffraction Lithography" (SDL), which enable 70 nm any pitch line by single exposure in KrF wavelength, has been studied in order to apply for an actual device pattern formation. In a previous work, the concept of SDL has been described with optical image calculations for 1-dimensional patterns and very superior performance has been proved. In this work, imaging characteristics and printing performance of typical 2-dimension patterns are investigated by optical image calculations and printing experiments to realize an application of SDL technique to fabrication of actual device patterns. As a result, very good performance is achieved for the typical 2-dimentional patterns such as line-end, tee-branch. Moreover, good performance is obtained for general SRAM patterns and standard cell of 65 nm node logic device with a little relaxation of design rule. In conclusion, by the application of SDL, 65 nm SoC patterns with a little relaxed design can be formed by single exposure process in KrF wavelength with a simple Atten-PSM. Then, huge cost reduction can be expected by application of SDL.
A novel RET named Super Diffraction Lithography (SDL), which enables 90~80 nm random line by single exposure in KrF wavelength, has been developed. A pair of bright lines, which sandwiches binary or Atten-PSM line and is surrounded by attenuating non-phase-shifting (Atten-NPS) area, is formed on a mask. The Atten-NPS area of the mask is composed with a small pad array whose pitch is finer than the resolution limit of projection optics. Then, this mask can be fabricated with a single layer patterning. When this mask is illuminated by an obliquely incident light with a specific incident angle, very sharp dark line image is formed at center of the bright lines. Because the outside of the pair is Atten-NPS area, image intensity for this area can become much higher than a slice level of the central dark line image, resulting in no resist pattern at the outside of the pair. By application of a sub-resolution assist feature (SRAF) for semi-dense pattern, fine line can be imaged throughout pattern pitch. Then, utilizing SDL, very fine random line can be formed by SINGLE EXPOSURE of SIMPLE STRUCTURE MASK. In KrF exposure at NA=0.82, 90 nm line with pitch of down to 240 nm can be achieved by a binary mask. Using 6% transmission Atten-PSM, 80 nm becomes possible. Moreover, 50 nm isolated line becomes feasible in KrF exposure by application of high transmission Atten-PSM. We believe that SDL is the most cost-effective and easily applicable RET for gate pattern formation in advanced logic devices.
An approximate in-resist image calculation method is proposed. From the configuration of light wave propagation in resist, sine of incident angle becomes 1/n times smaller than that in the air. Wavelength in resist is 1/n times shorter than that in the air; where n is refractive index of a resist. If wavelength in the air is 1/n times shorter at mask, sine of diffraction angle becomes 1/n times smaller, which is the same as the propagation angle of the diffracted light in resist for actual wavelength. Therefore, aerial image with 1/n times shorter wavelength under 1/n times smaller NA optics may become a good approximation of in-resist image for original wavelength, while attention should be required to image variation accompanied with z-shift of not observation point but z-shift of working wafer by which DOF is defined. We find that z-scale should be shrunk to obtain approximate DOF by a usual scaling law that is derived from phase relation of 3 beam interference with the largest interference at the optics. As an application of this calculation method, high NA ArF imaging, which will be realized by immersion optics, is investigated. Some interesting results, which may affect development strategy of ArF immersion lithography, are obtained in imaging characteristics. For example, resist blur in ArF resist, which seems to be much larger than that in KrF resist, may become the most serious problem to resolve a fine pattern with an extreme high NA ArF optics.
A simple and high sensitive focus monitoring has been developed utilizing an aperture in Cr film formed on backside of photomask. A special mask for focus monitoring is developed such that two mark patterns on the front side of the mask are irradiated by different illuminations. The different illuminations for the two marks are generated from usually used illumination with modulation by an aperture on the backside of the mask. In this work, two complementally halves of usually used illumination are effectively generated. Because illumination for each mark pattern on front side of the mask is strongly asymmetric in incident angle such that illumination beam impinged from only one side of the space, imaging of the large size mark pattern is carried out obliquely on the wafer. As a result, image is laterally shifted with focus. The direction of lateral image shift is opposite to that of another mark which is irradiated with illumination beams from opposite side of the space. Thus, the relative displacement between the two mark images may become a measure of focus. Because this focus monitor works under purely geometrical optics, focus monitoring of multiple steppers, which are working under different wavelength, can be performed with the same one photomask. In experiments, the two mark patterns, which are inner and outer box patterns, are printed with overlaying each other by double exposure with stepping of wafer stage. Then, mutual displacement of mark patterns is measured by a commercially available overlay measurement tool whose resolution is a few nm. Very high focus sensitivity (Δx/Δz) of ~0.9 is observed for NA=0.68 optics with strong annular illumination. Because of the high focus sensitivity and high resolution of overlay measurement, focus monitoring with very high resolution of a few nm can be achieved.
Extremely fine hole pattern formation with dark spot image is investigated with Atten-PSM and specific modified illumination. In optical image calculation, by the application of tone reversed image in Atten-PSM under an optimized cross-pole illumination, dark spot image with zero MEF and iso-focal characteristics is obtained for very wide range of pattern pitch. In KrF wavelength, formation of ~110 nm size dark spot image with resolution DOF higher than ~0.50μm can be achieved for the pattern pitch of isolated to ~240 nm. In this imaging, MEF may become very low or exactly zero for the pitch of isolated to ~300 nm. Because of low or zero MEF, OPC is essentially difficult or may be performed imperfectly for this method. However, small OPE of ~10 nm in CD variation throughout pattern pitch could be expected by the application of optimized illumination. In preliminary experiments under KrF optics of NA=0.75, high DOF and zero MEF characteristics are successfully proven, even while the experiments are carried out with non-optimal modified illumination.
A novel method for monitoring lens aberration in projection optics of a stepper is developed utilizing pinhole aperture formed on backside of photo mask. With the pinhole aperture, illumination beam to a mark pattern on the front side of a photo mask becomes semi-coherent with an incident angle which is determined by lateral distance between the pinhole and the mark. When the mark pattern generates diffraction beams within narrow angle region, imaging is carried out by using localized area of pupil. As a result, Hartmann test structure is effectively realized by this configuration. By elaboration of mask pattern, measurement error is significantly reduced resulting in sufficient accuracy for monitoring lens aberration in current scan stepper. Simulations by optical image calculation reveal that measurement error is less than 10m wave in RMS and 40m wave in maximum local deviation for an aberration which is expressed with first 35 polynomials of Zernike series. In preliminary experiments, measured aberration seems to be reasonable. This method should provide a simple, easy and cost effective tool for monitoring of lens aberration.
Simple focus monitoring method has been successfully developed by application of a special illumination aperture, which generates oblique illumination beam. By this method, very high sensitive focus monitoring has been achieved in a current stepper. In the stop of the illumination aperture, an opening is located at eccentric position near pupil edge. Then, illumination beam obliquely incidents to mark pattern on mask. Because of this configuration of illumination beam, imaging is carried out with oblique beams on wafer. As a result, imaging becomes non-telecentric. That is, image formed by this illumination laterally shifts almost proportional to focal deviation. To measure the lateral pattern shift, box-in-box mark is formed by double exposure. Inner box is formed by the oblique illumination in the first exposure and outer box is formed by conventional low coherent illumination in the second exposure overlaying inner box by stepping of wafer. Then, relative displacement of inner box to outer box is measured by commercially available overlay measurement system. Since sine of landing angle of imaging beams is approximately NA*sigma, which is over approximately 0.50 in a current stepper, the focus sensitivity, which is defined by a ratio of lateral pattern shift per unit defocus, may become approximately 0.50. Because resolution of lateral pattern shift is approximately 2 nm in current overlay measurement, the resolution of focus sensing becomes very high of approximately several nm.
For the convenience of practical use of phase shift focus monitor (PSFM), which has been developed by T. Brunner, imaging characteristics of PSFM are investigated under modified illumination by optical image calculations and printing experiments. Although the mechanism of pattern shift with focus offset under modified illumination is different from that for conventional high coherent illumination, sufficient sensitivity for precise focus monitoring is predicted by optical image calculations. Also, it is revealed that reduction of NA, i.e., localizing illumination at the peripheral part of pupil is effective to obtain higher sensitivity. By experiments, predicted characteristics are observed and similar sensitivity to that in conventional high coherent illumination is confirmed both for annular and quadrupole illuminations.
Iso-focal characteristics of line patterns in dark field imaging are investigated by optical image calculations and basic experiments for application to gate pattern in current logic devices. In dark field imaging, isolated line image, that is bright line image, shows iso-focal characteristics at exposure level higher than that in usual printing condition. The effective image contrast is enough high to resolve the line pattern by the application of high contrast resist. By the investigation of imaging characteristics throughout pattern pitch, good focus latitude of DOF > approximately 0.50 micrometers is obtained for almost all pitches down to approximately 300 nm in KrF wavelength utilizing modified illumination and attenuating phase shift mask. It is also revealed that mask error enhancement factor (MEF) is less than 2.0 and exposure latitude, which is defined by ((Delta) CD/CD)/((Delta) Exp.Dose/Exp. Dose), is smaller than approximately 1.0 throughout the pattern pitch. Although these very superior characteristics are obtained by this imaging, minimum image CD of isolated line with iso-focal characteristics is no smaller than approximately 180 nm for KrF wavelength even with extremely high NA. Also, range of line width for high DOF is not so large of approximately100 nm for isolated line. However, by application of appropriate CD trimming, such as partial ashing, this method can be applied for gate pattern formation of logic devices in 100 nm node. Accordingly, we believe that this work will provide a cost effective method of gate pattern formation down to 100 nm node in use of KrF wavelength.
Sub-100 nm line pattern is easily formed with DOF larger than 0.9 micrometer by mature lithography technology in KrF wavelength. It is discovered by optical image calculations that a dark mask line between two bright mask lines with each dimensions of 0.20 to approximately 0.14 micrometer (measured on wafer scale) can be imaged with very fine width under a modified illumination. Also, at some conditions, iso-focal CD characteristics are observed for the very fine line image. The validity of this calculated characteristics is confirmed by experiments. The fine dark line pattern with the width finer than 100 nm is formed by the application of the image generated by this method. Moreover, the patterns formed by this method show high exposure latitude, low MEF and high immunity to lens aberration.
A novel resolution enhancement technology (RET) for random pattern formation which utilizes attenuating non-phase-shift (Atten-NPS) assist pattern is proposed based on optical image calculation. By addition of Atten NPS assist pattern whose size is comparable to that of main pattern, much improvement of imaging characteristics is obtained for isolated feature under modified illumination. Modified illumination is optimized both for hole and line pattern. Also, transmission of Atten-NPS aperture is optimized to enhance imaging characteristics and not to be printed on resist. In the application of this RET, aperture size of assist pattern on mask can make similar to that of main pattern. Consequently, difficulty in mask fabrication for conventional assist pattern method , such as pattern delineation and defect inspection, will be overcome.
0.32 micrometers pitch on-grid random line pattern formation by double exposure in KrF wavelength is proposed based on optical image calculations. For first exposure, mask patterns are generated by combination of designed patterns and dense dummy patterns, al of which are laid out at on- grid positions with a pitch of 0.32 micrometers . An attenuated phase shift mask and an annular illumination are applied. The imaging performance is significantly enhanced because all patterns in this mask are categorized 'dense' with almost the same pitch of 0.32 micrometers . The mask pattern for second exposure are simply generated from the dummy patterns by tone inversion. The image size required for erasing dummy pattern in much larger than that for the first exposure. Consequently, large latitude, to erase the dummy pattern is much lager than that for the first exposure. Consequently, large latitude, to erase the dummy patterns and not to affect the designed patterns, can be obtained by conventional exposure method with low coherent illumination. Even in this method, OPC is required to obtain desirable CD. However, OPC in this method can be performed by simple rules based method, because on-grid restriction to layout much reduces the variation of pattern configuration. As a result, 0.32 micrometers pitch on-grid random line patterns are formed accurately with DOF larger than 0.6 micrometers in KrF wavelength.
Sub-50 nm isolated line pattern is successfully formed by KrF lithography with DOF larger than 0.5 micrometers . This is performed by using a phase edge type phase shift mask, a special photo resist and a partial dry ashing process. Because all of these elemental techniques currently becomes mature, this method is one of promising candidates for sub- 50 nm isolated line pattern formation. As a conclusion, we consider KrF lithography can be extended to sub-50 nm high speed logic node.
Imaging characteristics of lithography using phase edge type PSM are investigated intensively based on optical image calculations. Even in the absence of aberration, imaging characteristics are very complicated for high coherent illumination. Shape of CD-Focus curve of isolated line varies from concave to convex with increasing dark line, i.e., Cr line width on mask. Hence, in the case that DOF is optimized for smallest Cr width on mask, DOF decreases with increasing image CD. Moreover, CD-Focus characteristics varies with shifter width on mask. As a result, fair CD- Focus characteristics can be obtained for some specific patterns. In contrast with this, under medium coherent illumination, variation of CD-Focus characteristics with changing mask pattern is less significant than that for high coherent illumination. Large DOF can be obtained for wide range of image CD and pattern pitch. However, finest CD with iso-focal characteristics, which is given by zero Cr width mask, is larger for lower coherent illumination.
We have investigated the influence of a spherical aberration on the printing characteristics with modified illumination. At first, we have developed a simple method for measuring the aberration function with an alternating phase shift mask (PSM), and have measured that in the projection optics of a commercially available KrF stepper. Then the anomalous phenomena observed in the printing with modified illumination are examined with the simulated aerial images with the measured spherical aberration. As a result, we found good coincidence between the simulated images and the anomalies. In conclusion, the origin of the anomalies is ascribed to the spherical aberration in the projection optics.
An important pattern layout rule in application of alternating phase shift mask (PSM) is proposed. The images of semi- randomly aligned patterns show poor characteristics in defocus and mask fidelity. For an example, lines and spaces patterns with uniform bright and non-uniform dark widths showed significantly large CD variation with defocus. And lines and spaces patterns with uniform dark and non-uniform bright widths showed completely asymmetrical CD-focus characteristics. It has been revealed by the comparison between experimental data and the simulated results that the asymmetrical characteristics are caused by the spherical aberration in projection optics.
A novel method to reduce a mask error effect in alternative phase shift lithography is proposed, which is derived from the analysis of the pupil plane images generated by masks with and without error. The analysis shown that zeroth order diffraction light, which usually shows zero intensity for precisely formed mask with the same areas for phased and non-phased openings, is generated by mask error both in phase and transmission. So, applying a pupil filter that cuts off rays passing through the central part of pupil is considered to be effective for the reduction of mask error effect. Impacts of the pupil filtering on imaging were evaluated by the numerical calculations of aerial images for various masks and results revealed that by applying a circular pupil filter with same radius as that of non- diffracted illumination image, tolerance in phase and transmission error for L/S patterns enlarged up to 20 degree and 50%, respectively.
Because optical lithography requires precise CD control, we developed a fast, accurate proximity correction method based on aerial image simulation. Simple formulas using a linear combination of simulated aerial image intensities both at and around mask edge were found effective for fast, precise CD prediction. Using the developed CD prediction and the fine biasing correction methods, we verified that various two-dimensional patterns printed by an i- line stepper using modified illumination and binary intensity mask are satisfactorily corrected; i.e., CD deviations from designed values, line shortening and feature deformations are effectively reduced.
Access to the requested content is limited to institutions that have purchased or subscribe to SPIE eBooks.
You are receiving this notice because your organization may not have SPIE eBooks access.*
*Shibboleth/Open Athens users─please
sign in
to access your institution's subscriptions.
To obtain this item, you may purchase the complete book in print or electronic format on
SPIE.org.
INSTITUTIONAL Select your institution to access the SPIE Digital Library.
PERSONAL Sign in with your SPIE account to access your personal subscriptions or to use specific features such as save to my library, sign up for alerts, save searches, etc.