Linear Variable Filters (LVF) bandpass filters provide a gradient in passband wavelength along one axis and constant center wavelength along the orthogonal axis. Infrared LVF filters used to discriminate wavelength provide a hyperspectral capability to the infrared imager which is light weight and rugged. By exploiting filter harmonics, dual band LVF filters have been demonstrated for the mid and far infrared spectral regions.
Spectral control in thermophotovoltaic systems (TPV) is critical to achieving high thermal to electric conversion efficiency and power density. Closed thermal systems using a fixed heat source such as radio-isotope TPV, require the recuperation of below bandpass photons to maintain the temperature of the thermal source and maximize conversion efficiency. Open thermal systems designed to recover waste heat require a trade-off between high power density and minimal operating cost. Spectral control options are presented to meet the different end goals of the two systems.
Laser based applications including optical communications, LIDAR and Raman spectroscopy benefit from ultra-narrow (< 1.0 nm) bandpass and high edge slope dichroic optical filters by rejecting off-band ambient and scattered light. However, applications for these filters are limited by shifts in wavelength due to temperature and angle of incidence, system f-number, doppler shift and pointing error of the gimbal as well as the stability of the source. Passive design techniques such as athermalization, use of high refractive index materials and widening the passband are compared with active tuning options. Adding thermal or tilt tuning can expand the operational range of the filter and mitigate the compromise to signal to noise which follows from widening the passband.
Narrow bandwidth linear variable filters (NB-LVF) bring hyperspectral imaging to a wide range of applications in a compact, low weight, rigid structure. The center wavelengths of the narrow bandpass of a linear variable filter changes smoothly in one dimension and are constant in the orthogonal dimension along the surface of the filter. The filter, which is the size of the camera’s detector, is placed directly ahead of the detector and successive frames are acquired as the camera skews or as the camera platform moves across a scene. The full width, half maximum bandwidth of the filter used is 0.8% of the center wavelength and the spectral range is 400 to 900 nm with a wavelength gradient of 50 nm/mm. Examples using the LVF camera for emission spectroscopy, absorption spectroscopy, machine vision, and industrial process control and hyperspectral imaging are presented.
Advanced window coatings being developed for drone applications need to be multi-functional. A typical window design includes a hydrophobic outer coating, a solar filter rejecting unwanted spectrum, an EMI layer and/or heater to prevent icing and anti-reflection films. Hydrophobic and hydrophilic thin film materials are available from various vendors. We present our experience in using these materials and their comparative performance with respect to film adhesion and durability. The window can be a common aperture for several different sensors. Adding an EMI shield using a transmitting conducting oxide (TCO) is challenged when visible and NIR transmission is needed. The trade-off between required conductivity and NIR transmission is presented.
Linear variable filters have become a common way to impart wavelength selectivity into optical systems with a minimum of optical elements. Measuring the filter in the presence of steep spectral-spatial gradients is the primary difficulty in characterizing these filters, requiring a small aperture beam resulting in a corresponding loss of signal power. We will discuss our approach to mapping the spectral and spatial distribution of these parts as well as a method to specify these filters. We will also suggest methods to calibrate and align the filters onto a detector, camera or chip.
Deep space optical communication is a highly efficient alternative to radio frequency (RF) technology offering higher data bandwidths. The challenge is that deep space optical communication is photon limited. Rejection of extraneous light is critical to maximizing signal quality. High transmitting, ultra-narrow bandpass filters with high out of band optical density (OD) can meet this requirement while improving signal throughput. Design trade-offs and fabrication results are presented for ultra-narrow bandpass filters with bandwidths as narrow as 0.2 nm full width half maximum (FWHM) with on-band transmission greater than 95% and off band rejection of greater that OD 5. Filters are designed to match laser wavelengths in the region of 1550 nm.
We are currently developing linear variable filters (LVF) with very high wavelength gradients. In the visible, these filters have a wavelength gradient of 50 to 100 nm/mm. In the infrared, the wavelength gradient covers the range of 500 to 900 microns/mm. Filter designs include band pass, long pass and ulta-high performance anti-reflection coatings. The active area of the filters is on the order of 5 to 30 mm along the wavelength gradient and up to 30 mm in the orthogonal, constant wavelength direction. Variation in performance along the constant direction is less than 1%. Repeatable performance from filter to filter, absolute placement of the filter relative to a substrate fiducial and, high in-band transmission across the full spectral band is demonstrated.
Applications include order sorting filters, direct replacement of the spectrometer and hyper-spectral imaging. Off-band rejection with an optical density of greater than 3 allows use of the filter as an order sorting filter. The linear variable order sorting filters replaces other filter types such as block filters. The disadvantage of block filters is the loss of pixels due to the transition between filter blocks. The LVF is a continuous gradient without a discrete transition between filter wavelength regions.
If the LVF is designed as a narrow band pass filter, it can be used in place of a spectrometer thus reducing overall sensor weight and cost while improving the robustness of the sensor. By controlling the orthogonal performance (smile) the LVF can be sized to the dimensions of the detector. When imaging on to a 2 dimensional array and operating the sensor in a push broom configuration, the LVF spectrometer performs as a hyper-spectral imager.
This paper presents performance of LVF fabricated in the far infrared on substrates sized to available detectors. The impact of spot size, F-number and filter characterization are presented. Results are also compared to extended visible LVF filters.
Narrow band-pass optical interference filters are used for a variety of applications to improve signal
quality in laser based systems. Applications include LIDAR, sensor processing and free space
communications. A narrow band width optical filter allows for passage of the laser signal while rejecting
ambient light. The more narrow the bandwidth, the better the signal to noise. However, the bandwidth
of a design for a particular application is typically limited by a number of factors including spectral shift
over the operational angles of incidence, thermal shift over the range of operating temperature and, in
the case of laser communication, rejection of adjacent laser channels. The trade-off of these parameters
can significantly impact system design and performance. This paper presents design and material
approaches to maximize the performance of narrow bandpass filters in the infrared.
A method for fabricating filters for fiber optic sensors is presented. The interference filter's construction is laid on it's side to allow for the use of air as the low refractive index material. Bandpass filters tuned to the absorption line of a trace gas can then be used as a sensitive means of detecting gas concentration. Complex filter designs can be fabricated in a single patterned layer. A CO2/CH4 gas sensor is presented as a design example.
Use of a dual band FPA necessitates an optical system that is capable of imaging both mid wave infrared (MWIR) and
long wave infrared (LWIR) spectral bands simultaneously. Such optical system can have up to 10 lenses, (20 surfaces
that require antireflection (AR) coatings) which, if 95% transmitting in each band, will result in overall throughput of
just under 60%1. With 99% transmitting in each band, overall throughput would be just over 90%, a relative
improvement of 50%. An earlier paper presented dual band antireflection designs, as well as early fabrication attempts
on plano Ge, ZnSe, ZnS, AMTIR-1, and CaF2 windows2. This paper presents results of prototype coating fabrication on
ZnSe, Ge, and BaF2 lenses that comprise a 7 lens set. The measured performance of the individual elements is used to
model overall system performance. The elements were incorporated into an optical assembly and measured overall
imager performance is analyzed and presented.
A method of antireflection coating the interior and exterior surfaces of a deep concave optic is under development and is
described. The challenges of coating such an optic include obtaining uniform performance, good mechanical and optical
performance across a temperature range of ambient to 1000oC, and the transition to cost effective production. The
coating process utilizes a tuned cylindrical magnetron sputtering source which sits inside the nose cone to coat the inner
surface and a complementary cylindrical sputtering source to coat the outside surface. The flux from the sputtering
source is tuned along the length of the cylinder by stacking an inner core of magnets in such a way as to produce a
spatially variant magnetic field which allows the source distribution to approximate a uniform deposition on the surface
of the optic. A deposition occulting mask provides fine tuning of source uniformity.
Dual band infrared imagers require a similar set of filters as are needed by single band infrared imagers but with the
added requirement of high transmission in the mid and far infrared. The design of discrete layer filters with optimized
dual band transmission is investigated for three types of filters. These are a visible-infrared beamsplitter, a long
wavelength edge filter and a dual bandpass cold filter. These designs illustrate the role that harmonic reflection bands
can play in the design of dual band filters. The visible reflection beamsplitter design does not have harmonics in the
infrared but requires additional layers to reduce reflection at mid and long wavelengths. The long wavelength edge filter
requires suppression of the second and third harmonics while the sensor band pass cold filter can use harmonics to
advantage. Design techniques are discussed and the results of an initial set of fabrication runs are presented to assess the
sensitivity of example designs to manufacturing errors.
Sensor performance for dual band forward looking infrared (FLIR) imagers can be substantially improved by increased simultaneous throughput of both sensor bands in the optical systems. Currently available antireflection coatings (ARs) have optimized performance for either spectral band, but not both on the same optic. Where AR coatings cover the mid and long wave infrared (LWIR) bands, or the entire broad band spectrum from visible to LWIR, performance is not sufficient for future systems. A method of designing and fabricating high performance ARs has been developed. This paper presents a discussion of the trade-off of film thickness and complexity versus transmission performance. Fabrication results for high, medium and low index lens materials are also presented.
Optical interference notch filters shift to shorter wavelengths with increasing angles of incidence. This phenomenon restricts the filter's field of view and limits the practical application of narrow reflection notch filters. The amount of shift is inversely proportional to the effective average index of the composite film. A method of designing narrow notch optical filters with very broad field of view and controllable bandwidth is demonstrated. Because this method produces a filter that is predominantly composed of the high refractive index material, it will shift on angle less than a typical quarter-wave notch filter. Increasing the effective index of the filter also reduces the separation of S and P-polarized light with angle. This paper presents modeled and measured performance for both mid and far-infrared filters developed using this technique. Narrow notch discrete and rugate filter designs are compared.
The selection of thin film materials for use in far infrared filters is limited. While silicon can be used as a high index material in the far infrared, the suitability of low index materials is less understood. In this study, thin film materials with spectral transmission extending from 1 to beyond 30 micrometer are characterized and evaluated for use in Rugate and discrete interference filters. A materials selection matrix was developed, and five materials were selected for characterization. Transmission, reflection and absorption data are presented for AgBr, AgCl, KBr, CsI and CsBr as single material films, and as blends. These materials are characterized for stress, exposure to humidity, and color center formation when exposed to visible light.
The combination of discrete and Rugate filter design techniques can provide unique design advantages. Rugate filter deposition techniques can be applied to discrete, and square wave based designs as easily as they are applied to sine wave index profiles. Just as apodization reduces sidelobes about a Rugate stop-band, apodization reduces sidelobes of a square wave filter. This paper builds on these observations to present designs which superimpose sine and square wave profiles to produce a more efficient use of the design space. Techniques are presented for moving back and forth between discrete and Rugate designs to achieve reduced film thickness, more efficient use of index contrast, and harmonic suppression.
Fabrication of high performance optical filters are typically long deposition runs. Successful deposition requires the monitoring and correction for long term process variability due to source depletion and equipment degradation as well as control of immediate parameters such as deposition rates and substrate temperature. Multiple resolution analysis of insitu sensor data using wavelet transforms provides the means of extracting both short term and long term trends from a common data stream. This paper presents a method for monitoring the fabrication of discrete and Rugate filters using the Haar transform. This technique begins by describing the average of the time series, and then successively resolves the time series into more detailed layers. The lowest resolution coefficients describe optical density growth and absorption. The more detailed layers describe systematic and periodic variations due to the growth of optical thickness. Separate analysis of data for different time regimes provides insight into different physical parameters. Least square fit to the low order terms relate to parameters such as film absorption and growth of optical density. Windowed Fourier transform of periodic structure in the coefficients of the detailed layer provides insight into a number of performance parameters such as the period and amplitude of the optical thickness cycle which is characteristic of Rugate design.
KEYWORDS: Control systems, Raman spectroscopy, Reflectivity, Refractive index, Optical filters, Gradient-index optics, Crystals, Fabrication, Control systems design, Signal detection
The wide range of optical thin film applications utilizing gradient index coatings has prompted the development of advanced optical control techniques. These include ellipsometric and photometric instruments capable of in-situ measurement of optical performance as the optical structure is being deposited. This paper discusses design sensitivity analysis and instrument configuration for development of a control strategy. The ability to measure optical thickness, refractive index and mechanical thickness is a function of several instrument parameters including wavelength, number of wavelengths, angle of incidence, and complexity of measurement surface. The most critical control data in the fabrication of a particular rugate design, and the instrument parameters and techniques employed and how they affect the control strategy is presented in this discussion.
Grading the refractive index period of a rugate is a technique for depositing broad band reflectors using rugate technology. The principle advantage of this technique is the ability to deposit long and short pass reflectors in parallel with other rugate spectral features and thus generate complex performance in a single optical film. Variation of the amplitude of the index profile as the period is changed allows for good edge definition for long or short pass designs. Several of these devices were fabricated and measured performance is presented. These devices demonstrate rugate properties of harmonic suppression and superposition with other rugate structures.
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